Engineered Macrophage-Membrane-Coated Nanoparticles with Enhanced PD-1 Expression Induce Immunomodulation for a Synergistic and Targeted Antiglioblastoma Activity

Recent advances in biomimetic nanodelivery systems for the treatment of glioblastoma

Glioblastoma remain one of the deadliest malignant tumors in the central nervous system, largely due to their aggressiveness, high degree of heterogeneity, and the protective barrier of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Conventional therapies including surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy often fail to improve patient prognosis due to limited drug penetration and non-specific toxicity. We then present recent advances in biomimetic nanodelivery systems, focusing on cell membrane coatings, nanoenzymes, and exosome-based carriers. By mimicking endogenous biological functions, these systems demonstrate improved immune evasion, enhanced BBB traversal, and selective drug release within the tumor microenvironment. Nevertheless, we acknowledge unresolved bottlenecks related to large-scale production, stability, and the intricacies of regulatory compliance. Looking forward, we propose an interdisciplinary roadmap that combines materials engineering, cellular biology, and clinical expertise. Through this collaborative approach, this work aims to optimize biomimetic nanodelivery for glioma therapy and ultimately improve patient outcomes.

Advanced nanoparticle engineering for precision therapeutics of brain diseases

Despite the increasing global prevalence of neurological disorders, the development of nanoparticle (NP) technologies for brain-targeted therapies confronts considerable challenges. One of the key obstacles in treating brain diseases is the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which restricts the penetration of NP-based therapies into the brain. To address this issue, NPs can be installed with specific ligands or bioengineered to boost their precision and efficacy in targeting brain-diseased cells by navigating across the BBB, ultimately improving patient treatment outcomes. At the outset of this review, we highlighted the critical role of ligand-functionalized or bioengineered NPs in treating brain diseases from a clinical perspective. We then identified the key obstacles and challenges NPs encounter during brain delivery, including immune clearance, capture by the reticuloendothelial system (RES), the BBB, and the complex post-BBB microenvironment. Following this, we overviewed the recent progress in NPs engineering, focusing on ligand-functionalization or bionic designs to enable active BBB transcytosis and targeted delivery to brain-diseased cells. Lastly, we summarized the critical challenges hindering clinical translation, including scalability issues and off-target effects, while outlining future opportunities for designing cutting-edge brain delivery technologies.

Cell membrane nanoparticles in cancer therapy: From basic structure to surface functionalization

Cell membrane nanoparticles (CNPs) have recently garnered significant attention as effective drug-delivery vehicles. Beyond their simple function of encapsulating cargo within a lipid bilayer structure, the cell membrane is a complex entity derived from biological materials, presenting a variety of surface proteins and glycans. Notable features that enhance their effectiveness as delivery vehicles include the inhibition of protein corona formation in the plasma and the suppression of macrophage phagocytosis, both of which contribute to prolonged blood circulation. Furthermore, CNPs exhibit homotypic targeting effects toward their cells of origin, resulting in reduced side effects, and because they are not xenobiotics, the likelihood of nonspecific immune activation is also minimized. This review focuses on various applications of CNPs in cancer therapeutic studies, examining their structural evolution and surface engineering developments. We introduce studies that leverage the inherent functionality of cell membranes and recent research in functional CNPs synthesized through genetic or chemical engineering methods. Through this review, we aim to trace the progression of CNP research, explore potential directions for their use in biomedical applications, and assess the prospects for clinical trials.

Recent advances in biomimetic nanodelivery systems for cancer Immunotherapy

Tumor immunotherapy is a developing and promising therapeutic method. However, the mechanism of tumor immune microenvironment and individual differences of patients make the clinical application of immunotherapy still very limited. The resulting targeting of the tumor environment and immune system is a suitable strategy for tumor therapy. Biomimetic nanodelivery systems (BNDS) coated with nanoparticles has brought new hope for tumor immunotherapy. Due to its high targeting, maximum drug delivery efficiency and immune escape, BNDS has become one of the options for tumor immunotherapy in the future. BNDS combines the advantages of natural cell membranes and nanoparticles and has good targeting properties. This review summarizes the relationship between tumor and immune microenvironment, classification of immunotherapy, engineering modification of cell membrane, and a comprehensive overview of different types of membrane BNDS in immunotherapy. Furthermore, the prospects and challenges of biomimetic nanoparticles coated with membranes in tumor immunotherapy are further discussed.

A TCR nanovesicle antibody for redirecting T cells and reversing immunosuppression as a tumor immunotherapy strategy

T-cell receptor T-cell engagers (TCR-TCE) are soluble bispecific proteins composed of TCR and anti-CD3 antibodies, which can effectively redirect tumor-infiltrating T cells to kill tumor cells. However, TCR-TCE development and clinical application are significantly hindered by the instability of natural TCRs and immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, underscoring the urgent need for alternative engineering strategies. Here, we describe a strategy that utilizes artificial cell membrane nanoparticle technology to generate a TCR nanovesicle antibody (TPC NV), which presents tumor-specific TCR, anti-CD3, and PD-1 antibodies on its membrane, representing a novel TCR-TCE with therapeutic efficacy against solid tumors. TPC NV binds to tumor cells through TCR, redirects tumor-infiltrating T cells via anti-CD3 antibodies, and reverses immunosuppression with anti-PD-1 antibodies, thereby inducing a broad-spectrum T cell response that effectively eliminates established tumors. Furthermore, epacadostat, an inhibitor of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase, can be loaded into TPC NV to suppress regulatory T cell (Treg) generation and enhance dendritic cell (DC) maturation by inhibiting tumor tryptophan metabolism. This dual action amplifies adaptive immune activation and triggers a robust systemic anti-tumor immune response.

Osteosarcoma cell-derived CCL2 facilitates lung metastasis via accumulation of tumor-associated macrophages

Osteosarcoma (OS) is the most common malignant tumor of bone in children and adolescents. Although lung metastasis is a major obstacle to improving the prognosis of OS patients, the underlying mechanism of lung metastasis of OS is poorly understood. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) with M2-like characteristics are reportedly associated with lung metastasis and poor prognosis in OS patients. In this study, we investigated the metastasis-associated tumor microenvironment (TME) in orthotopic OS tumor models with non-metastatic and metastatic OS cells. Non-metastatic and metastatic tumor cells derived from mouse OS (Dunn and LM8) and human OS (HOS and 143B) were used to analyze the TME associated with lung metastasis in orthotopic OS tumor models. OS cell-derived secretion factors were identified by cytokine array and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Orthotopic tumor models with metastatic LM8 and 143B cells were analyzed to evaluate the therapeutic potential of a neutralizing antibody in the development of primary and metastatic tumors. Metastatic OS cells developed metastatic tumors with infiltration of M2-like TAMs in the lungs. Cytokine array and ELISA demonstrated that metastatic mouse and human OS cells commonly secreted CCL2, which was partially encapsulated in extracellular vesicles. In vivo experiments demonstrated that while primary tumor growth was unaffected, administration of CCL2-neutralizing antibody led to a significant suppression of lung metastasis and infiltration of M2-like TAMs in the lung tissue. Our results suggest that CCL2 plays a crucial role in promoting the lung metastasis of OS cells via accumulation of M2-like TAMs.

Cell membrane-derived nanovesicles as extracellular vesicle-mimetics in wound healing

Cell membrane-derived nanovesicles (NVs) have emerged as promising alternatives to extracellular vesicles (EVs) for wound healing applications, addressing the limitations of traditional EVs, which include insufficient targeting capability, low production yield, and limited drug-loading capacity. Through mechanical cell extrusion methods, NVs exhibit superior characteristics, demonstrating enhanced yield, stability, and purity compared to natural EVs. These NVs can be derived from various membrane sources, including single cell types (stem cells, blood cells, immune cells, and bacterial membranes), hybrid cell membranes and cell membranes mixed with liposomes, with each offering unique therapeutic properties. The integration of genetic engineering and surface modifications has further enhanced NV functionality, enabling precise targeting and improved drug delivery capabilities. Recent advances in NV-based therapies have demonstrated their potential across multiple biomedical applications. Although challenges persist in terms of standardization, storage stability, and clinical translation, the combination of natural cell-derived functions with artificial modification potential positions NVs as a promising platform for next-generation therapeutic delivery systems, thereby offering new possibilities in wound healing applications. Finally, we explore the challenges and future prospects of translating NV-based therapeutics into clinical practice, providing insights into the future development of this innovative approach in wound healing and tissue repair.

Immune response recalibration using immune therapy and biomimetic nano-therapy against high-grade gliomas and brain metastases

Although with aggressive standards of care like surgical resection, chemotherapy, and radiation, high-grade gliomas (HGGs) and brain metastases (BM) treatment has remained challenging for more than two decades. However, technological advances in this field and immunotherapeutic strategies have revolutionized the treatment of HGGs and BM. Immunotherapies like immune checkpoint inhibitors, CAR-T targeting, oncolytic virus-based therapy, bispecific antibody treatment, and vaccination approaches, etc., are emerging as promising avenues offering new hope in refining patient's survival benefits. However, selective trafficking across the blood-brain barrier (BBB), immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME), metabolic alteration, and tumor heterogeneity limit the therapeutic efficacy of immunotherapy for HGGs and BM. Furthermore, to address this concern, the NanoBioTechnology-based bioinspired delivery system has been gaining tremendous attention in recent years. With technological advances such as Trojan horse targeting and infusing/camouflaging nanoparticles surface with biological molecules/cells like immunocytes, erythrocytes, platelets, glioma cell lysate and/or integrating these strategies to get hybrid membrane for homotypic recognition. These biomimetic nanotherapy offers advantages over conventional nanoparticles, focusing on greater target specificity, increased circulation stability, higher active loading capacity, BBB permeability (inherent inflammatory chemotaxis of neutrophils), decreased immunogenicity, efficient metabolism-based combinatorial effects, and prevention of tumor recurrence by induction of immunological memory, etc. provide new age of improved immunotherapies outcomes against HGGs and BM. In this review, we emphasize on neuro-immunotherapy and the versatility of these biomimetic nano-delivery strategies for precise targeting of hard-to-treat and most lethal HGGs and BM. Moreover, the challenges impeding the clinical translatability of these approaches were addressed to unmet medical needs of brain cancers.

Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems to modulate tumor immune response for glioblastoma treatment

Glioblastoma (GBM) is a primary central nervous system neoplasm, characterized by a grim prognosis and low survival rates. This unfavorable therapeutic outcome is partially attributed to the inadequate immune infiltration and an immunosuppressive microenvironment, which compromises the effectiveness of conventional radiotherapy and chemotherapy. To this end, precise modulation of cellular dynamics in the immune system has emerged as a promising approach for therapeutic intervention. The advent of nanoparticle-based therapies has revolutionized cancer treatment and provided highly effective options. Consequently, various strategically designed nano-delivery platforms have been established to promote the efficacy of immune therapy against GBM. This review delves into the recent advancements in nano-based delivery systems that are designed to modulate immune cells in GBM microenvironment, and explores their multifaceted mechanisms, including the blockade of immune checkpoints, the restraint of immunosuppressive cells, the coordination of tumor-associated macrophages, the activation of innate immune cells, and the stimulation of adaptive immunity. Collectively, this summary not only advances the comprehension involved in modulating antitumor immune responses in GBM, but also paves the way for the development of innovative therapeutic strategies to conquer GBM. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most lethal brain tumor, with a median survival rate of merely 12-16 months after diagnosis. Despite surgical, radiation and chemotherapy treatments, the two-year survival rate for GBM patients is less than 10 %. The treatment of GBM is challenging mainly because several issues associated with the GBM microenvironment have not yet been resolved. Most recently, novel drug delivery approaches, based on the clear understanding of the intrinsic properties of GBM, have shown promise in overcoming some of the obstacles. In particular, taking account of the highly immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment in GBM, recent advancements in nano-based delivery systems are put forward to stimulate immune cells in GBM and unravel their multifaceted mechanisms. This review summarizes the latest nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems to modulate tumor immune response for glioblastoma treatment. Moreover, the development trends and challenges of nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems in modulating the immunity of GBM are predicted, which may facilitate widespread regimens springing up for successfully treating GBM.

Translational nanorobotics breaking through biological membranes

In the dynamic realm of translational nanorobotics, the endeavor to develop nanorobots carrying therapeutics in rational in vivo applications necessitates a profound understanding of the biological landscape of the human body and its complexity. Within this landscape, biological membranes stand as critical barriers to the successful delivery of therapeutic cargo to the target site. Their crossing is not only a challenge for nanorobotics but also a pivotal criterion for the clinical success of therapeutic-carrying nanorobots. Nevertheless, despite their urgency, strategies for membrane crossing in translational nanorobotics remain relatively underrepresented in the scientific literature, signaling an opportunity for further research and innovation. This review focuses on nanorobots with various propulsion mechanisms from chemical and physical to hybrid mechanisms, and it identifies and describes four essential biological membranes that represent the barriers needed to be crossed in the therapeutic journey of nanorobots in in vivo applications. First is the entry point into the blood stream, which is the skin or mucosa or intravenous injection; next is the exit from the bloodstream across the endothelium to the target site; further is the entry to the cell through the plasma membrane and, finally, the escape from the lysosome, which otherwise destroys the cargo. The review also discusses design challenges inherent in translating nanorobot technologies to real-world applications and provides a critical overview of documented membrane crossings. The aim is to underscore the need for further interdisciplinary collaborations between chemists, materials scientists and chemical biologists in this vital domain of translational nanorobotics that has the potential to revolutionize the field of precision medicine.

Synergistic strategies for glioblastoma treatment: CRISPR-based multigene editing combined with immune checkpoint blockade

Glioblastoma (GBM) is a primary brain tumor known for its high levels of aggressiveness and resistance to current treatments such as radiotherapy and chemotherapy. As a result, there is a pressing need for innovative therapeutic approaches to combat GBM. Thus, we have developed an engineered multifunctional extracellular vesicle (EV) delivery system that offers an "all-in-one" strategy for GBM therapy. Our approach involved the use of genetic engineering to the long-lasting production of PD-1 and the brain-specific peptide angiopep-2 on the surface of EVs. These modified EVs were then utilized to rejuvenate exhausted CD8+ T cells blocking PD-L1, resulting in significant therapeutic benefits for GBM treatment. Furthermore, the EVs contained Cas9 protein and sgRNA for precise and minimally invasive gene therapy, which addressing the key barriers associated with in vivo CRISPR‒Cas9 gene editing treatment. The multigene editing of EVs resulted in efficient intratumor multisite gene editing (PLK1: 58.6%, VEGF: 52.7%), leading to the successful apoptosis of tumor cells in vivo and demonstrating an antiangiogenic effect. This research introduces a promising universal platform for combining immune checkpoint blockade therapy with gene editing treatment.

ROS Regulation in CNS Disorder Therapy: Unveiling the Dual Roles of Nanomedicine

The treatment of brain diseases has always been the focus of attention. Due to the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), most small molecule drugs are difficult to reach the brain, leading to undesirable therapeutic outcomes. Recently, nanomedicines that can cross the BBB and precisely target lesion sites have emerged as thrilling tools to enhance the early diagnosis and treat various intractable brain disorders. Extensive research has shown that reactive oxygen species (ROS) play a crucial role in the occurrence and progression of brain diseases, including brain tumors and neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, stroke, or traumatic brain injury, making ROS a potential therapeutic target. In this review, on the structure and function of BBB as well as the mechanisms are first elaborated through which nanomedicine traverses it. Then, recent studies on ROS production are summarized through photodynamic therapy (PDT), chemodynamic therapy (CDT), and sonodynamic therapy (SDT) for treating brain tumors, and ROS depletion for treating NDDs. This provides valuable guidance for the future design of ROS-targeted nanomedicines for brain disease treatment. The ongoing challenges and future perspectives in developing nanomedicine-based ROS management for brain diseases are also discussed and outlined.

Bioengineered NanoAid synergistically targets inflammatory pro-tumor processes to advance glioblastoma chemotherapy

Through transcriptomic analysis of patient-derived glioblastoma tissues, we identify an overactivation of inflammatory pathways that contribute to the development of a tumor-promoting microenvironment and therapeutic resistance. To address this critical mechanism, we present NanoAid, a biomimetic nanoplatform designed to target inflammatory pro-tumor processes to advance glioblastoma chemotherapy. NanoAid employs macrophage-membrane-liposome hybrids to optimize the delivery of COX-2 inhibitor parecoxib and paclitaxel. By inheriting macrophage characteristics, NanoAid not only efficiently traverses the blood-brain barrier and precisely accumulates within tumors but also enhances cancer cell uptake, thereby improving overall anticancer efficacy. Notably, the combination of parecoxib and paclitaxel effectively disrupts inflammatory pro-tumor processes while inducing a synergistic effect that inhibits tumor growth, overcomes therapeutic resistance, and minimizes adverse effects. This results in substantial tumor growth inhibition and extends the median survival of tumor-bearing mice. Thus, our study bridges clinical insights with fundamental research, potentially revolutionizing tumor therapy paradigms.

Macrophage membrane-camouflaged pure-drug nanomedicine for synergistic chemo- and interstitial photodynamic therapy against glioblastoma

Glioblastoma (GBM) persists as a highly fatal malignancy, with current clinical treatments showing minimal progress over years. Interstitial photodynamic therapy (iPDT) holds promise due to its minimally invasive nature and low toxicity but is impeded by poor photosensitizer penetration and inadequate GBM targeting. Here, we developed a biomimetic pure-drug nanomedicine (MM@CT), which co-assembles the photosensitizer chlorin e6 (Ce6) and the first-line chemotherapeutic drug (temozolomide, TMZ) for GBM, then camouflaged with macrophage membranes. This design eliminates the need for traditional excipients, ensuring formulation safety and achieving exceptionally high drug loading with 73.2 %. By leveraging the biomimetic properties of macrophage membranes, MM@CT evades clearance by the mononuclear phagocyte system and can overcome blood circulatory barriers to target intracranial GBM tumors due to its inherent tumor-homing ability. Consequently, this targeted strategy enables precise delivery of TMZ to the tumor site while significantly enhancing Ce6 accumulation within the tumor tissue. Upon intra-tumoral irradiation using an optical fiber, activated Ce6 synergizes with TMZ to exert both cytotoxic effects from chemotherapy and unique advantages from iPDT simultaneously attacking GBM tumors in a dual manner. In subcutaneous and intracranial GBM mouse models, MM@CT exhibits remarkable anti-tumor efficacy with minimal systemic toxicity, emerging as a promising GBM treatment strategy. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Glioblastoma (GBM) remains a formidable brain cancer, posing significant therapeutic challenges due to the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and tumor heterogeneity. To overcome these obstacles, we have developed MM@CT, a biomimetic nanomedicine with exceptional drug loading efficiency of 73.2 %. MM@CT incorporates the photosensitizer Ce6 and chemotherapy agent TMZ, encapsulated within nanoparticles and camouflaged with macrophage membranes. This innovative design enables efficient BBB penetration, precise tumor targeting, and synergistic application of chemotherapy and photodynamic therapy. Encouragingly, preclinical evaluations have demonstrated substantial antitumor activity with minimal systemic toxicity, positioning MM@CT as a promising therapeutic strategy for GBM.

Engineered biomimetic cisplatin-polyphenol nanocomplex for chemo-immunotherapy of glioblastoma by inducing pyroptosis

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is characterized by pronounced immune escape and resistance to chemotherapy-induced apoptosis. Preliminary investigations revealed a marked overexpression of gasdermin E (GSDME) in GBM. Notably, cisplatin (CDDP) demonstrated a capacity of inducing pyroptosis by activating caspase-3 to cleave GSDME, coupled with the release of proinflammatory factors, indicating the potential as a viable approach of inducing anti-tumor immune activation. For the effective delivery of CDDP, the CDDP-polyphenol nanocomplexes were prepared, and catalase and copper ions were incorporated to fortify structural integrity, enhance glutathione (GSH) responsiveness, and ameliorate tumor hypoxia. Additionally, BV2 microglial cells were engineered to overexpress programmed death-1 (PD-1), and the membrane is employed for nanocomplex coating, effectively blocking the CDDP-induced upregulation of programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1). Furthermore, the angiopep-2 peptide was modified to efficiently cross the blood brain barrier and specifically target GBM cells. In vitro analyses confirmed potent cytotoxicity and characteristic induction of pyroptosis. In vivo assays corroborated the enhancement of tumor targeting, culminating in an obvious suppression of tumor proliferation. A notable activation of immune cells was observed within tumors and lymph nodes, indicative of a synergistic effect of chemotherapy and immunotherapy, underscoring its potential as a safe and efficacious therapeutic strategy against GBM.

Cell Membrane Camouflaged Biomimetic Nanoparticles as a Versatile Platform for Brain Diseases Treatment

Although there are various advancements in biomedical in the past few decades, there are still challenges in the treatment of brain diseases. The main difficulties are the inability to deliver a therapeutic dose of the drug to the brain through the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and the serious side effects of the drug. Thus, it is essential to select biocompatible drug carriers and novel therapeutic tools to better enhance the effect of brain disease treatment. In recent years, biomimetic nanoparticles (BNPs) based on natural cell membranes, which have excellent biocompatibility and low immunogenicity, are widely used in the treatment of brain diseases to enable the drug to successfully cross the BBB and target brain lesions. BNPs can prolong the circulation time in vivo, are more conducive to drug aggregation in brain lesions. Cell membranes (CMs) from cancer cells (CCs), red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), and so on are used as biomimetic coatings for nanoparticles (NPs) to achieve the ability to target, evade clearance, or stimulate the immune system. This review summarizes the application of different cell sources as BNPs coatings in the treatment of brain diseases and discusses the possibilities and challenges of clinical translation.

Biomimetic Targeted Co-Delivery System Engineered from Genomic Insights for Precision Treatment of Osteosarcoma

The high heterogeneity and severe side effects of chemotherapy are major factors contributing to the failure of osteosarcoma treatment. Herein, a comprehensive genomic analysis is conducted, and identified two prominent characteristics of osteosarcoma: significant cyclin-dependent kinases 4 (CDK4) amplification and homologous recombination repair deficiency. Based on these findings, a co-delivery system loaded with CDK4/6 inhibitors and poly ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP) inhibitors is designed. By employing metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) as carriers, issue of drug insolubility is effectively addressed, while also enabling controlled release in response to the tumor microenvironment. To enhance targeting capability and biocompatibility, the MOFs are further coated with a bio-membrane targeting B7H3. This targeted biomimetic co-delivery system possesses several key features: 1) it can precisely target osteosarcoma with high B7H3 expression; 2) the combination of CDK4/6 inhibitors and PARP inhibitors exhibits synergistic effects, significantly impairing tumor's DNA repair capacity; and 3) the system has the potential for combination with photodynamic therapy, amplifying DNA repair defects to maximize tumor cell eradication. Furthermore, it is observed that this co-delivery system can activate immune microenvironment, increasing CD8+ T cell infiltration and converting osteosarcoma from an immune-cold to an immune-hot tumor. In summary, the co-delivery system is an effective therapeutic strategy and holds promise as a novel approach for osteosarcoma treatment.

Innovative utilization of cell membrane-coated nanoparticles in precision cancer therapy

Cell membrane-coated nanoparticles (CMNPs) have recently emerged as a promising platform for cancer therapy. By encapsulating therapeutic agents within a cell membrane-derived coating, these nanoparticles combine the advantages of synthetic nanoparticles and natural cell membranes. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the recent advancements in utilizing CMNPs as effective drug delivery vehicles for cancer therapy. The synthesis and fabrication methods of CMNPs are comprehensively discussed. Various techniques, such as extrusion, sonication, and self-assembly, are employed to coat synthetic nanoparticles with cell membranes derived from different cell types. The cell membrane coating enables biocompatibility, reducing the risk of an immune response and enhancing the stability of the nanoparticles in the bloodstream. Moreover, functionalization strategies for CMNPs, primarily chemical modification, genetic engineering, and external stimuli, are highlighted. The presence of specific cell surface markers on the coated membrane allows targeted drug delivery to cancer cells and maximizes therapeutic efficacy. Preclinical studies utilizing CMNPs for cancer therapy demonstrated the successful delivery of various therapeutic agents, such as chemotherapeutic drugs, nucleic acids, and immunotherapeutic agents, using CMNPs. Furthermore, the article explores the future directions and challenges of this technology while offering insights into its clinical potential.

M1 macrophage-membrane-cloaked paclitaxel/β-elemene nanoparticles targeting cervical cancer for enhanced therapy

Cervical cancer is a leading cause of cancer-related mortality in females worldwide, necessitating urgent solutions for effective treatment. Paclitaxel (PTX), a natural diterpene alkaloid compound, has the ability to inhibit mitosis and induce programmed apoptosis in tumor cells. However, its toxicity and drug resistance limit its efficacy in certain cervical cancer patients. β-elemene (β-ELE) can reverse multidrug resistance by inhibiting ATP-binding cassette transporters, thereby enhancing chemotherapy drug retention. Therefore, we propose a combination therapy using PTX/β-ELE to improve chemotherapy sensitivity. To enhance targeted drug delivery, we developed M1-macrophage-membrane-coated nanoparticles (M1@PLGA/PTX/β-ELE) for co-delivery of PTX&β-ELE. Through both in vitro and in vivo cervical cancer models, we demonstrated that M1@PLGA/PTX/β-ELE effectively suppressed tumor progression and polarization of tumor-associated macrophages. Furthermore, H&E staining confirmed the high therapeutic biosafety of M1@PLGA/PTX/β-ELE as there was no significant damage observed in major organs throughout the entire therapeutic process. Overall, this study presents a targeted biomimetic nanoplatform and combinatorial strategy that synergistically enhances chemosensitivity in malignant tumors.

Recent advances in biomimetic strategies for the immunotherapy of glioblastoma

Immunotherapy is regarded as one of the most promising approaches for treating tumors, with a multitude of immunotherapeutic thoughts currently under consideration for the lethal glioblastoma (GBM). However, issues with immunotherapeutic agents, such as limited in vivo stability, poor blood-brain barrier (BBB) penetration, insufficient GBM targeting, and represented monotherapy, have hindered the success of immunotherapeutic interventions. Moreover, even with the aid of conventional drug delivery systems, outcomes remain suboptimal. Biomimetic strategies seek to overcome these formidable drug delivery challenges by emulating nature's intelligent structures and functions. Leveraging the variety of biological structures and functions, biomimetic drug delivery systems afford a versatile platform with enhanced biocompatibility for the co-delivery of diverse immunotherapeutic agents. Moreover, their inherent capacity to traverse the BBB and home in on GBM holds promise for augmenting the efficacy of GBM immunotherapy. Thus, this review begins by revisiting the various thoughts and agents on immunotherapy for GBM. Then, the barriers to successful GBM immunotherapy are analyzed, and the corresponding biomimetic strategies are explored from the perspective of function and structure. Finally, the clinical translation's current state and prospects of biomimetic strategy are addressed. This review aspires to provide fresh perspectives on the advancement of immunotherapy for GBM.

Ultrasound Guided Local Delivery of Bioorthogonal PDL1 Degrader for Enhanced Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy involving PDL1 degradation holds great potential in anti-tumor treatment. Optimal design of PDL1 degraders and subsequent efficient delivery into tumors are essential for expected efficacy, especially when abnormal tumor vasculature is considered. Herein, a nanodroplet-based novel drug delivery platform termed as NDsmTx (nanodroplet-based therapeutics) for ultrasound targeted delivery of PDL1 degrader is designed. Briefly, the shell of the NDsmTx is armed with RGD and mPD1 (a bioorthogonal PD1 mutant produced by genetic codon expansion technology can covalently bind PDL1), and the core is composed of perfluorohexane (PFH, C6F14). The RGD on the NDsmTx recognizes αvβ3 expressed by tumor vasculature, making NDsmTx accumulated in tumor practical and visible by low-frequency ultrasound (LFUS). In turn, inertial cavitation induced by LFUS facilitates mPD1 on the nanodroplet debris penetrating the tumor, where mPD1 covalently binds PDL1 and initiates a lysosomal degradation process. Through both in vitro and in vivo study, the superior performance of NDsmTx in degrading PDL1 and boosting anti-tumor immunity is confirmed. In conclusion, NDsmTx emerge as an alternative to existing PDL1 blockers in tumor immunotherapy.

Engineered Macrophage Exosomes Deliver Drug-Targeted Therapy for Breast Cancer

Breast cancer is a highly widespread form of malignant tumor characterized by a high rate of recurrence and mortality; it primarily occurs when tumor cells spread to peripheral regions of the body. Macrophages have a significant impact on the proliferation and metastasis of breast cancer. The exosomes generated by these cells exhibit an extensive spectrum of capabilities in suppressing the spread of cancer cells. These feature very specific targeting properties for breast cancer cells and inhibit the proliferation of cancer cells by altering the immune milieu within the tumor. This study investigates methods for developing macrophage-derived exosomes, such as using protein-coupled exosome membranes to protect delivery contents, creating multifunctional biomimetic particles, and utilizing ultrasonic fusion to protect delivery contents. Furthermore, this paper addresses recent advances in producing macrophage exosomes from organic and inorganic materials. In general, targeted treatment for breast cancer could benefit greatly from creating drug delivery systems mediated by macrophage exosomes.

Targeted Microglial Membrane-Coated MicroRNA Nanosponge Mediates Inhibition of Glioblastoma

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most prevalent primary brain tumor. Recent research emphasizes the crucial role of microRNAs (miRs) in GBM pathogenesis, and targeting miRs offers an effective approach for precise GBM therapy. However, inhibiting a single miR may not be sufficient due to the compensatory mechanisms of GBM. Herein, we developed a miR-nanosponge capable of specifically capturing multiple miRs involved in tumor growth, migration, invasion, angiogenesis, and the creation of an immunosuppressive microenvironment, thereby offering a comprehensive treatment for GBM. Coated with BV2 cell membrane (BM) for enhanced blood-brain barrier (BBB) crossing and GBM targeting, the BM@miR-nanosponge targets miR-9, miR-21, miR-215, and miR-221, significantly inhibiting GBM progression and modulating the immune system for a thorough GBM eradication. The BM@miR-nanosponge notably extended the median survival time of GBM-bearing mice and outperformed the standard treatment drug temozolomide (TMZ). This study introduces a comprehensive miR-based strategy for GBM treatment and highlights the importance of targeting multiple miRs associated with tumor survival for effective therapy.

A biomimetic targeted nanosystem delivering synergistic inhibitors for glioblastoma immune microenvironment reprogramming and treatment

Efficient drug delivery across the blood-brain barrier is imperative for treating glioblastoma (GBM). This study utilized the GBM cell membrane to construct a biomimetic targeted nanosystem (GMNPs@AMD/RAPA) that hierarchically releases the CXCR4 antagonist AMD3100 and the mTOR pathway inhibitor rapamycin (RAPA) for reprogramming the tumor immune microenvironment and suppressing the progression of GBM. By initially inhibiting the CXCL12/CXCR4 axis, the tumor microenvironment (TME) was reprogrammed to enhance the infiltration of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) into the TME while suppressing tumor cell survival, proliferation, and angiogenesis. Subsequently, through further cellular uptake and degradation of the nanoparticles, the mTOR pathway inhibitor RAPA was released, further suppressing the tumor progression. This study successfully combined chemotherapy and immunotherapy, achieving effective synergistic therapeutic effects, and suppressing the progression of GBM.

Harnessing cells to improve transport of nanomedicines

Efficient tumour treatment is hampered by the poor selectivity of anticancer drugs, resulting in scarce tumour accumulation and undesired off-target effects. Nano-sized drug-delivery systems in the form of nanoparticles (NPs) have been proposed to improve drug distribution to solid tumours, by virtue of their ability of passive and active tumour targeting. Despite these advantages, literature studies indicated that less than 1% of the administered NPs can successfully reach the tumour mass, highlighting the necessity for more efficient drug transporters in cancer treatment. Living cells, such as blood cells, circulating immune cells, platelets, and stem cells, are often found as an infiltrating component in most solid tumours, because of their ability to naturally circumvent immune recognition, bypass biological barriers, and reach inaccessible tissues through innate tropism and active motility. Therefore, the tumour-homing ability of these cells can be harnessed to design living cell carriers able to improve the transport of drugs and NPs to tumours. Albeit promising, this approach is still in its beginnings and suffers from difficult scalability, high cost, and poor reproducibility. In this review, we present an overview of the most common cell transporters of drugs and NPs, and we discuss how different cell types interact with biological barriers to deliver cargoes of various natures to tumours. Finally, we analyse the different techniques used to load drugs or NPs in living cells and discuss their advantages and disadvantages.

Advances in Immunomodulatory Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles for Inflammatory and Cancer Therapies

In recent decades, immunotherapy has been considered a promising treatment approach. The modulatable enhancement or attenuation of the body's immune response can effectively suppress tumors. However, challenges persist in clinical applications due to the lack of precision in antigen presentation to immune cells, immune escape mechanisms, and immunotherapy-mediated side effects. As a potential delivery system for drugs and immunomodulators, mesoporous silica has attracted extensive attention recently. Mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) possess high porosity, a large specific surface area, excellent biocompatibility, and facile surface modifiability, making them suitable as multifunctional carriers in immunotherapy. This article summarizes the latest advancements in the application of MSNs as carriers in cancer immunotherapy, aiming to stimulate further exploration of the immunomodulatory mechanisms and the development of immunotherapeutics based on MSNs.

Applications of nanotechnology in remodeling the tumour microenvironment for glioblastoma treatment

With the increasing research and deepening understanding of the glioblastoma (GBM) tumour microenvironment (TME), novel and more effective therapeutic strategies have been proposed. The GBM TME involves intricate interactions between tumour and non-tumour cells, promoting tumour progression. Key therapeutic goals for GBM treatment include improving the immunosuppressive microenvironment, enhancing the cytotoxicity of immune cells against tumours, and inhibiting tumour growth and proliferation. Consequently, remodeling the GBM TME using nanotechnology has emerged as a promising approach. Nanoparticle-based drug delivery enables targeted delivery, thereby improving treatment specificity, facilitating combination therapies, and optimizing drug metabolism. This review provides an overview of the GBM TME and discusses the methods of remodeling the GBM TME using nanotechnology. Specifically, it explores the application of nanotechnology in ameliorating immune cell immunosuppression, inducing immunogenic cell death, stimulating, and recruiting immune cells, regulating tumour metabolism, and modulating the crosstalk between tumours and other cells.

Cancer Nanovaccines: Nanomaterials and Clinical Perspectives

Cancer nanovaccines represent a promising frontier in cancer immunotherapy, utilizing nanotechnology to augment traditional vaccine efficacy. This review comprehensively examines the current state-of-the-art in cancer nanovaccine development, elucidating innovative strategies and technologies employed in their design. It explores both preclinical and clinical advancements, emphasizing key studies demonstrating their potential to elicit robust anti-tumor immune responses. The study encompasses various facets, including integrating biomaterial-based nanocarriers for antigen delivery, adjuvant selection, and the impact of nanoscale properties on vaccine performance. Detailed insights into the complex interplay between the tumor microenvironment and nanovaccine responses are provided, highlighting challenges and opportunities in optimizing therapeutic outcomes. Additionally, the study presents a thorough analysis of ongoing clinical trials, presenting a snapshot of the current clinical landscape. By curating the latest scientific findings and clinical developments, this study aims to serve as a comprehensive resource for researchers and clinicians engaged in advancing cancer immunotherapy. Integrating nanotechnology into vaccine design holds immense promise for revolutionizing cancer treatment paradigms, and this review provides a timely update on the evolving landscape of cancer nanovaccines.

Engineered Cell Membrane-Coated Nanoparticles: New Strategies in Glioma Targeted Therapy and Immune Modulation

Gliomas, the most prevalent primary brain tumors, pose considerable challenges due to their heterogeneity, intricate tumor microenvironment (TME), and blood-brain barrier (BBB), which restrict the effectiveness of traditional treatments like surgery and chemotherapy. This review provides an overview of engineered cell membrane technologies in glioma therapy, with a specific emphasis on targeted drug delivery and modulation of the immune microenvironment. This study investigates the progress in engineered cell membranes, encompassing physical, chemical, and genetic alterations, to improve drug delivery across the BBB and effectively target gliomas. The examination focuses on the interaction of engineered cell membrane-coated nanoparticles (ECM-NPs) with the TME in gliomas, emphasizing their potential to modulate glioma cell behavior and TME to enhance therapeutic efficacy. The review further explores the involvement of ECM-NPs in immunomodulation techniques, highlighting their impact on immune reactions. While facing obstacles related to membrane stability and manufacturing scalability, the review outlines forthcoming research directions focused on enhancing membrane performance. This review underscores the promise of ECM-NPs in surpassing conventional therapeutic constraints, proposing novel approaches for efficacious glioma treatment.

CircRHBDD1 promotes immune escape via IGF2BP2/PD-L1 signaling and acts as a nanotherapeutic target in gastric cancer

BACKGROUND

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) have been implicated in the development and progression of gastric cancer (GC). However, it remains unclear whether dysregulated circRNA affects immune escape and the efficacy of immunotherapy in GC. Our aim is to investigate the molecular mechanism of circRNA affecting GC immunotherapy and identify effective molecular therapeutic targets.

METHODS

The differential expression profile of circRNAs was established through circRNA sequencing, comparing three paired GC tissues with their adjacent non-cancerous gastric tissues. The expression level of circRHBDD1 in GC tissues was then assessed using quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). The biological characteristics of circRHBDD1 were verified through a series of experiments, including agarose gel electrophoresis assays, RNase R treatment, and actinomycin D experiments. The prognostic value of circRHBDD1 in GC was evaluated by conducting both univariate and multivariate survival analyses. Furthermore, loss- and gain-of-function approaches were utilized to investigate the impact of circRHBDD1 on GC immune escape. RNA-sequencing, immunoprecipitation, flow cytometry, and methylated RNA immunoprecipitation (meRIP) analysis were performed to elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms.

RESULTS

We discovered that circRHBDD1 exhibited remarkably high expression levels in GC tissues and cell lines. Notably, the high expression of circRHBDD1 was significantly correlated with poor overall survival and disease-free survival among GC patients. Both in vitro and in vivo experiments revealed that circRHBDD1 upregulated the expression of PD-L1 and impeded the infiltration of CD8+ T cells. Further, we found that circRHBDD1 binds to IGF2BP2, disrupting the interaction between E3 ligase TRIM25 and IGF2BP2, and ultimately inhibiting IGF2BP2 ubiquitination and degradation. Intriguingly, IGF2BP2 enhances PD-L1 mRNA stability through m6A modification. Additionally, we developed Poly (lactide-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA)-Polyethylene glycol (PEG)-based nanoparticles loaded with circRHBDD1 siRNA. In vivo experiments validated that the combination of PLGA-PEG(si-circRHBDD1) and anti-PD-1 offers a safe and efficacious nano-drug regimen for cancer immunotherapy.

CONCLUSION

Our results demonstrated that circRHBDD1 promoted GC immune escape by upregulating the expression of PD-L1 and reprogramming T cell-mediated immune response. Inhibition of circRHBDD1 expression could potentially enhance the response of GC patients to immunotherapy, thus improving treatment outcomes. Additionally, the development of a nanodrug delivery system provides a feasible approach for future clinical applications.

Antibody-Decorated Nanoplatform to Reprogram Macrophage and Block Immune Checkpoint LSECtin for Effective Cancer Immunotherapy

Repolarizing tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) into tumor-inhibiting M1 macrophages has been considered a promising strategy for enhanced cancer immunotherapy. However, several immunosuppressive ligands (e.g., LSECtin) can still be highly expressed on M1 macrophages, inducing unsatisfactory therapeutic outcomes. We herein developed an antibody-decorated nanoplatform composed of PEGylated iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) and LSECtin antibody conjugated onto the surface of IONPs via the hydrazone bond for enhanced cancer immunotherapy. After intravenous administration, the tumor microenvironment (TME) pH could trigger the hydrazone bond breakage and induce the disassociation of the nanoplatform into free LSECtin antibodies and IONPs. Consequently, the IONPs could repolarize TAMs into M1 macrophages to remodel immunosuppressive TME and provide an additional anticancer effect via secreting tumoricidal factors (e.g., interlukin-12). Meanwhile, the LSECtin antibody could further block the activity of LSECtin expressed on M1 macrophages and relieve its immunosuppressive effect on CD8+ T cells, ultimately leading to significant inhibition of tumor growth.

An Overview on the Physiopathology of the Blood-Brain Barrier and the Lipid-Based Nanocarriers for Central Nervous System Delivery

The state of well-being and health of our body is regulated by the fine osmotic and biochemical balance established between the cells of the different tissues, organs, and systems. Specific districts of the human body are defined, kept in the correct state of functioning, and, therefore, protected from exogenous or endogenous insults of both mechanical, physical, and biological nature by the presence of different barrier systems. In addition to the placental barrier, which even acts as a linker between two different organisms, the mother and the fetus, all human body barriers, including the blood-brain barrier (BBB), blood-retinal barrier, blood-nerve barrier, blood-lymph barrier, and blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier, operate to maintain the physiological homeostasis within tissues and organs. From a pharmaceutical point of view, the most challenging is undoubtedly the BBB, since its presence notably complicates the treatment of brain disorders. BBB action can impair the delivery of chemical drugs and biopharmaceuticals into the brain, reducing their therapeutic efficacy and/or increasing their unwanted bioaccumulation in the surrounding healthy tissues. Recent nanotechnological innovation provides advanced biomaterials and ad hoc customized engineering and functionalization methods able to assist in brain-targeted drug delivery. In this context, lipid nanocarriers, including both synthetic (liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanoemulsions, nanostructured lipid carriers, niosomes, proniosomes, and cubosomes) and cell-derived ones (extracellular vesicles and cell membrane-derived nanocarriers), are considered one of the most successful brain delivery systems due to their reasonable biocompatibility and ability to cross the BBB. This review aims to provide a complete and up-to-date point of view on the efficacy of the most varied lipid carriers, whether FDA-approved, involved in clinical trials, or used in in vitro or in vivo studies, for the treatment of inflammatory, cancerous, or infectious brain diseases.

Multiple Synergistic Effects of the Microglia Membrane-Bionic Nanoplatform on Mediate Tumor Microenvironment Remodeling to Amplify Glioblastoma Immunotherapy

Glioblastoma (GBM) is a lethal brain tumor with high levels of malignancy. Most chemotherapy agents show serious systemic cytotoxicity and restricted delivery effectiveness due to the impediments of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Immunotherapy has developed great potential for aggressive tumor treatments. Disappointingly, its efficacy against GBM is hindered by the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) and BBB. Herein, a multiple synergistic immunotherapeutic strategy against GBM was developed based on the nanomaterial-biology interaction. We have demonstrated that this BM@MnP-BSA-aPD-1 can transverse the BBB and target the TME, resulting in amplified synergetic effects of metalloimmunotherapy and photothermal immunotherapy (PTT). The journey of this nanoformulation within the TME contributed to the activation of the stimulator of the interferon gene pathway, the initiation of the immunogenic cell death effect, and the inhibition of the programmed cell death-1/programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-1/PD-L1) signaling axis. This nanomedicine revitalizes the immunosuppressive TME and evokes the cascade effect of antitumor immunity. Therefore, the combination of BM@MnP-BSA-aPD-1 and PTT without chemotherapeutics presents favorable benefits in anti-GBM immunotherapy and exhibits immense potential for clinical translational applications.

Boosting Checkpoint Immunotherapy with Biomimetic Nanodrug Delivery Systems

Immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) has achieved unprecedented progress in tumor immunotherapy by blocking specific immune checkpoint molecules. However, the high biodistribution of the drug prevents it from specifically targeting tumor tissues, leading to immune-related adverse events. Biomimetic nanodrug delivery systems (BNDSs) readily applicable to ICB therapy have been widely developed at the preclinical stage to avoid immune-related adverse events. By exploiting or mimicking complex biological structures, the constructed BNDS as a novel drug delivery system has good biocompatibility and certain tumor-targeting properties. Herein, the latest findings regarding the aforementioned therapies associated with ICB therapy are highlighted. Simultaneously, prospective bioinspired engineering strategies can be designed to overcome the four-level barriers to drug entry into lesion sites. In future clinical translation, BNDS-based ICB combination therapy represents a promising avenue for cancer treatment.

Macrophage membrane-coated nanoparticles for the treatment of infectious diseases

Infectious diseases severely threaten human health, and traditional treatment techniques face multiple limitations. As an important component of immune cells, macrophages display unique biological properties, such as biocompatibility, immunocompatibility, targeting specificity, and immunoregulatory activity, and play a critical role in protecting the body against infections. The macrophage membrane-coated nanoparticles not only maintain the functions of the inner nanoparticles but also inherit the characteristics of macrophages, making them excellent tools for improving drug delivery and therapeutic implications in infectious diseases (IDs). In this review, we describe the characteristics and functions of macrophage membrane-coated nanoparticles and their advantages and challenges in ID therapy. We first summarize the pathological features of IDs, providing insight into how to fight them. Next, we focus on the classification, characteristics, and preparation of macrophage membrane-coated nanoparticles. Finally, we comprehensively describe the progress of macrophage membrane-coated nanoparticles in combating IDs, including drug delivery, inhibition and killing of pathogens, and immune modulation. At the end of this review, a look forward to the challenges of this aspect is presented.

Macrophage membrane-camouflaged nanoclusters of ultrasmall iron oxide nanoparticles for precision glioma theranostics

Developing effective nanomedicines to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) for efficient glioma theranostics is still considered to be a challenging task. Here, we describe the development of macrophage membrane (MM)-coated nanoclusters (NCs) of ultrasmall iron oxide nanoparticles (USIO NPs) with dual pH- and reactive oxygen species (ROS)-responsivenesses for magnetic resonance (MR) imaging and chemotherapy/chemodynamic therapy (CDT) of orthotopic glioma. Surface citrate-stabilized USIO NPs were solvothermally synthesized, sequentially modified with ethylenediamine and phenylboronic acid, and cross-linked with gossypol to form gossypol-USIO NCs (G-USIO NCs), which were further coated with MMs. The prepared MM-coated G-USIO NCs (G-USIO@MM NCs) with a mean size of 99.9 nm display tumor microenvironment (TME)-responsive gossypol and Fe release to promote intracellular ROS production and glutathione consumption. With the MM-mediated BBB crossing and glioma targeting, the G-USIO@MM NCs can specifically inhibit orthotopic glioma in vivo through the gossypol-mediated chemotherapy and Fe-mediated CDT. Meanwhile, USIO NPs can be dissociated from the NCs under the TME, thus allowing for effective T1-weighted glioma MR imaging. The developed G-USIO@MM NCs with simple components and drug as a crosslinker are promising for glioma theranostics, and may be extended to tackle other cancer types.

Macrophage membrane-camouflaged pH-sensitive nanoparticles for targeted therapy of oral squamous cell carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Oral cancer is the most common malignant tumor of the head and neck, and 90% of cases are oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). Chemotherapy is an important component of comprehensive treatment for OSCC. However, the clinical treatment effect of chemotherapy drugs, such as doxorubicin (DOX), is limited due to the lack of tumor targeting and rapid clearance by the immune system. Thus, based on the tumor-targeting and immune evasion abilities of macrophages, macrophage membrane-encapsulated poly(methyl vinyl ether alt maleic anhydride)-phenylboronic acid-doxorubicin nanoparticles (MM@PMVEMA-PBA-DOX NPs), briefly as MM@DOX NPs, were designed to target OSCC. The boronate ester bonds between PBA and DOX responded to the low pH value in the tumor microenvironment, selectively releasing the loaded DOX.

RESULTS

The results showed that MM@DOX NPs exhibited uniform particle size and typical core-shell structure. As the pH decreased from 7.4 to 5.5, drug release increased from 14 to 21%. The in vitro targeting ability, immune evasion ability, and cytotoxicity of MM@DOX NPs were verified in HN6 and SCC15 cell lines. Compared to free DOX, flow cytometry and fluorescence images demonstrated higher uptake of MM@DOX NPs by tumor cells and lower uptake by macrophages. Cell toxicity and live/dead staining experiments showed that MM@DOX NPs exhibited stronger in vitro antitumor effects than free DOX. The targeting and therapeutic effects were further confirmed in vivo. Based on in vivo biodistribution of the nanoparticles, the accumulation of MM@DOX NPs at the tumor site was increased. The pharmacokinetic results demonstrated a longer half-life of 9.26 h for MM@DOX NPs compared to 1.94 h for free DOX. Moreover, MM@DOX NPs exhibited stronger tumor suppression effects in HN6 tumor-bearing mice and good biocompatibility.

CONCLUSIONS

Therefore, MM@DOX NPs is a safe and efficient therapeutic platform for OSCC.

Cell Membrane-Coated Biomimetic Nanoparticles in Cancer Treatment

Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems hold promise for cancer treatment by enhancing the solubility and stability of anti-tumor drugs. Nonetheless, the challenges of inadequate targeting and limited biocompatibility persist. In recent years, cell membrane nano-biomimetic drug delivery systems have emerged as a focal point of research and development, due to their exceptional traits, including precise targeting, low toxicity, and good biocompatibility. This review outlines the categorization and advantages of cell membrane bionic nano-delivery systems, provides an introduction to preparation methods, and assesses their applications in cancer treatment, including chemotherapy, gene therapy, immunotherapy, photodynamic therapy, photothermal therapy, and combination therapy. Notably, the review delves into the challenges in the application of various cell membrane bionic nano-delivery systems and identifies opportunities for future advancement. Embracing cell membrane-coated biomimetic nanoparticles presents a novel and unparalleled avenue for personalized tumor therapy.

Advances in Engineered Macrophages: A New Frontier in Cancer Immunotherapy

Macrophages, as pivotal cells within the tumour microenvironment, significantly influence the impact of and reactions to treatments for solid tumours. The rapid evolution of bioengineering technology has revealed the vast potential of engineered macrophages in immunotherapy, disease diagnosis, and tissue engineering. Given this landscape, the goal of harnessing and innovating macrophages as a novel strategy for solid tumour immunotherapy cannot be overstated. The diverse strategies for engineered macrophages in the realm of cancer immunotherapy, encompassing macrophage drug delivery systems, chimeric antigen receptor macrophage therapy, and synergistic treatment approaches involving bacterial outer membrane vesicles and macrophages, are meticulously examined in this review. These methodologies are designed to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of macrophages against solid tumours, particularly those that are drug-resistant and metastatic. Collectively, these immunotherapies are poised to supplement and refine current solid tumour treatment paradigms, thus heralding a new frontier in the fight against malignant tumours.

Immune cells: potential carriers or agents for drug delivery to the central nervous system

Drug delivery systems (DDS) have recently emerged as a promising approach for the unique advantages of drug protection and targeted delivery. However, the access of nanoparticles/drugs to the central nervous system (CNS) remains a challenge mainly due to the obstruction from brain barriers. Immune cells infiltrating the CNS in the pathological state have inspired the development of strategies for CNS foundation drug delivery. Herein, we outline the three major brain barriers in the CNS and the mechanisms by which immune cells migrate across the blood-brain barrier. We subsequently review biomimetic strategies utilizing immune cell-based nanoparticles for the delivery of nanoparticles/drugs to the CNS, as well as recent progress in rationally engineering immune cell-based DDS for CNS diseases. Finally, we discuss the challenges and opportunities of immune cell-based DDS in CNS diseases to promote their clinical development.

Engineered Macrophage Membrane-Coated Nanoparticles with Enhanced CCR2 Expression Promote Spinal Cord Injury Repair by Suppressing Neuroinflammation and Neuronal death

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a severe neurological disorder characterized by significant disability and limited treatment options. Mitigating the secondary inflammatory response following the initial injury is the primary focus of current research in the treatment of SCI. CCL2 (C─C motif chemokine ligand 2) serves as the primary regulator responsible for inflammatory chemotaxis of the majority of peripheral immune cells, blocking the CCL2-CCR2 (C─C chemokine receptor type 2) axis has shown considerable therapeutic potential for inflammatory diseases, including SCI. In this study, it presents a multifunctional biomimetic nanoplatform (CCR2-MM@PLGA/Cur) specifically designed to target the CCL2-CCR2 axis, which consisted of an engineered macrophage membrane (MM) coating with enhanced CCR2 expression and a PLGA (poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid)) nanoparticle that encapsulated therapeutic drugs. CCR2 overexpression on MM not only enhanced drug-targeted delivery to the injury site, but also attenuated macrophage infiltration, microglia pro-inflammatory polarization, and neuronal apoptosis by trapping CCL2. Consequently, it facilitated neural regeneration and motor function recovery in SCI mice, enabling a comprehensive treatment approach for SCI. The feasibility and efficacy of this platform are confirmed through a series of in vitro and in vivo assays, offering new insights and potential avenues for further exploration in the treatment of SCI.

Engineered Cell Membrane-Camouflaged Nanomaterials for Biomedical Applications

Recent strides in nanomaterials science have paved the way for the creation of reliable, effective, highly accurate, and user-friendly biomedical systems. Pioneering the integration of natural cell membranes into sophisticated nanocarrier architectures, cell membrane camouflage has emerged as a transformative approach for regulated drug delivery, offering the benefits of minimal immunogenicity coupled with active targeting capabilities. Nevertheless, the utility of nanomaterials with such camouflage is curtailed by challenges like suboptimal targeting precision and lackluster therapeutic efficacy. Tailored cell membrane engineering stands at the forefront of biomedicine, equipping nanoplatforms with the capacity to conduct more complex operations. This review commences with an examination of prevailing methodologies in cell membrane engineering, spotlighting strategies such as direct chemical modification, lipid insertion, membrane hybridization, metabolic glycan labeling, and genetic engineering. Following this, an evaluation of the unique attributes of various nanomaterials is presented, delivering an in-depth scrutiny of the substantial advancements and applications driven by cutting-edge engineered cell membrane camouflage. The discourse culminates by recapitulating the salient influence of engineered cell membrane camouflage within nanomaterial applications and prognosticates its seminal role in transformative healthcare technologies. It is envisaged that the insights offered herein will catalyze novel avenues for the innovation and refinement of engineered cell membrane camouflaged nanotechnologies.

Chemotactic Micro/Nanomotors for Biomedical Applications

In nature, many organisms respond chemotactically to external chemical stimuli in order to extract nutrients or avoid danger. Inspired by this natural chemotaxis, micro/nanomotors with chemotactic properties have been developed and applied to study a variety of disease models. This chemotactic strategy has shown promising results and has attracted the attention of an increasing number of researchers. This paper mainly reviews the construction methods of different types of chemotactic micro/nanomotors, the mechanism of chemotaxis, and the potential applications in biomedicine. First, based on the classification of materials, the construction methods and therapeutic effects of chemotactic micro/nanomotors based on natural cells and synthetic materials in cellular and animal experiments will be elaborated in detail. Second, the mechanism of chemotaxis of micro/nanomotors is elaborated in detail: chemical reaction induced chemotaxis and physical process driven chemotaxis. In particular, the main differences and significant advantages between chemotactic micro/nanomotors and magnetic, electrical and optical micro/nanomotors are described. The applications of chemotactic micro/nanomotors in the biomedical fields in recent years are then summarized, focusing on the mechanism of action and therapeutic effects in cancer and cardiovascular disease. Finally, the authors are looking forward to the future development of chemotactic micro/nanomotors in the biomedical fields.

TME-Related Biomimetic Strategies Against Cancer

The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays an important role in various stages of tumor generation, metastasis, and evasion of immune monitoring and treatment. TME targeted therapy is based on TME components, related pathways or active molecules as therapeutic targets. Therefore, TME targeted therapy based on environmental differences between TME and normal cells has been widely studied. Biomimetic nanocarriers with low clearance, low immunogenicity, and high targeting have enormous potential in tumor treatment. This review introduces the composition and characteristics of TME, including cancer‑associated fibroblasts (CAFs), extracellular matrix (ECM), tumor blood vessels, non-tumor cells, and the latest research progress of biomimetic nanoparticles (NPs) based on TME. It also discusses the opportunities and challenges of clinical transformation of biomimetic nanoparticles.

Recent Advances in Biomedical Nanotechnology Related to Natural Products

Natural product processing via nanotechnology has opened the door to innovative and significant applications in medical fields. On one hand, plants-derived bioactive ingredients such as phenols, pentacyclic triterpenes and flavonoids exhibit significant pharmacological activities, on another hand, most of them are hydrophobic in nature, posing challenges to their use. To overcome this issue, nanoencapsulation technology is employed to encapsulate these lipophilic compounds and enhance their bioavailability. In this regard, various nano-sized vehicles, including degradable functional polymer organic compounds, mesoporous silicon or carbon materials, offer superior stability and retention for bioactive ingredients against decomposition and loss during delivery as well as sustained release. On the other hand, some naturally occurring polymers, lipids and even microorganisms, which constitute a significant portion of Earth's biomass, show promising potential for biomedical applications as well. Through nano-processing, these natural products can be developed into nano-delivery systems with desirable characteristics for encapsulation a wide range of bioactive components and therapeutic agents, facilitating in vivo drug transport. Beyond the presentation of the most recent nanoencapsulation and nano-processing advancements with formulations mainly based on natural products, this review emphasizes the importance of their physicochemical properties at the nanoscale and their potential in disease therapy.

Enhancement of Microglia Functions by Developed Nano-Immuno-Synergist to Ameliorate Immunodeficiency for Malignant Glioma Treatment

Resident microglia are key factors in mediating immunity against brain tumors, but the microglia in malignant glioma are functionally impaired. Little immunotherapy is explored to restore microglial function against glioma. Herein, oleanolic acid (OA) (microglia "restorer") and D PPA-1 peptide (immune checkpoint blockade) are integrated on a nano-immuno-synergist (D PAM@OA) to work coordinately. The self-assembled OA core is coated with macrophage membrane for efficient blood-brain barrier penetration and microglia targeting, on which D PPA-1 peptide is attached via acid-sensitive bonds for specific release in tumor microenvironment. With the enhanced accumulation of the dual drugs in their respective action sites, D PAM@OA effectively promotes the recruitment and activation of effector T cells by inhibiting aberrant activation of Signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT-3) pathway in microglia, and assists activated effector T cells in killing tumor cells by blocking elevated immune checkpoint proteins in malignant glioma. Eventually, as adjuvant therapy, the rationally designed nano-immuno-synergist hinders malignant glioma progression and recurrence with or without temozolomide. The work demonstrates the feasibility of a nano-formulation for microglia-based immunotherapy, which may provide a new direction for the treatment of brain tumors.

New insights of miRNA molecular mechanisms in breast cancer brain metastasis and therapeutic targets

Brain metastases in breast cancer (BC) patients are often associated with a poor prognosis. Recent studies have uncovered the critical roles of miRNAs in the initiation and progression of BC brain metastasis, highlighting the disease's underlying molecular pathways. miRNA-181c, miRNA-10b, and miRNA-21, for example, are all overexpressed in BC patients. It has been shown that these three miRNAs help tumors grow and metastasize by targeting genes that control how cells work. On the other hand, miRNA-26b5p, miRNA-7, and miRNA-1013p are all downregulated in BC brain metastasis patients. They act as tumor suppressors by controlling the expression of genes related to cell adhesion, angiogenesis, and invasion. Therapeutic miRNA targeting has considerable promise in treating BC brain metastases. Several strategies have been proposed to modulate miRNA expression, including miRNA-Mimics, antagomirs, and small molecule inhibitors of miRNA biogenesis. This review discusses the aberrant expression of miRNAs and metastatic pathways that lead to the spread of BC cells to the brain. It also explores miRNA therapeutic target molecular mechanisms and BC brain metastasis challenges with advanced strategies. The targeting of certain miRNAs opens a new door for the development of novel therapeutic approaches for this devastating disease.

Cell membrane-based nanomaterials for therapeutics of neurodegenerative diseases

Central nervous system (CNS) diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), glioblastoma (GBM), and peripheral nerve injury have been documented as incurable diseases, which lead to serious impacts on human health especially prevalent in the aging population worldwide. Most of the treatment strategies fail due to low efficacy, toxicity, and poor brain penetration. Recently, advancements in nanotechnology have helped alleviate the challenges associated with the application of cell membrane-based nanomaterials against CNS diseases. In the following review, the existing types of cell membrane-based nanomaterials systems which have improved therapeutic efficacy for CNS diseases would be described. A summary of recent progress in the incorporation of nanomaterials in cell membrane-based production, separation, and analysis will be provided. Addition to, challenges relate to large-scale manufacturing of cell membrane-based nanomaterials and future clinical trial of such platforms will be discussed.

Four Ounces Can Move a Thousand Pounds: The Enormous Value of Nanomaterials in Tumor Immunotherapy

The application of nanomaterials in healthcare has emerged as a promising strategy due to their unique structural diversity, surface properties, and compositional diversity. In particular, nanomaterials have found a significant role in improving drug delivery and inhibiting the growth and metastasis of tumor cells. Moreover, recent studies have highlighted their potential in modulating the tumor microenvironment (TME) and enhancing the activity of immune cells to improve tumor therapy efficacy. Various types of nanomaterials are currently utilized as drug carriers, immunosuppressants, immune activators, immunoassay reagents, and more for tumor immunotherapy. Necessarily, nanomaterials used for tumor immunotherapy can be grouped into two categories: organic and inorganic nanomaterials. Though both have shown the ability to achieve the purpose of tumor immunotherapy, their composition and structural properties result in differences in their mechanisms and modes of action. Organic nanomaterials can be further divided into organic polymers, cell membranes, nanoemulsion-modified, and hydrogel forms. At the same time, inorganic nanomaterials can be broadly classified as nonmetallic and metallic nanomaterials. The current work aims to explore the mechanisms of action of these different types of nanomaterials and their prospects for promoting tumor immunotherapy.

A Homing Missile-Like Nanotherapeutic with Single-Atom Catalytic Sites for In Situ Elimination of Intracellular Bacterial Pathogens

Intracellular bacterial pathogens hiding in host cells tolerate the innate immune system and high-dose antibiotics, resulting in recurrent infections that are difficult to treat. Herein, a homing missile-like nanotherapeutic (FeSAs@Sa.M) composed of a single-atom iron nanozyme (FeSAs) core coated with infected macrophage membrane (Sa.M) is developed for in situ elimination of intracellular methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA). Mechanically, the FeSAs@Sa.M initially binds to the extracellular MRSA via the bacterial recognition ability of the Sa.M component. Subsequently, the FeSAs@Sa.M can be transported to the intracellular MRSA-located regions in the host cell like a homing missile under the guidance of the extracellular MRSA to which it is attached, generating highly toxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) for intracellular MRSA killing via the enzymatic activities of the FeSAs core. The FeSAs@Sa.M is far superior to FeSAs in killing intracellular MRSA, proposing a feasible strategy for treating intracellular infections by in situ generating ROS in bacterial residing regions.