1
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Thomaschewski M, Prämassing M, Schill HJ, Zenin VA, Bozhevolnyi SI, Sorger VJ, Linden S. Near-Field Observation of the Photonic Spin Hall Effect. NANO LETTERS 2023; 23:11447-11452. [PMID: 37982385 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.3c02829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2023]
Abstract
The photonic spin Hall effect, referring to the spatial separation of photons with opposite spins due to spin-orbit interactions, has enabled potential for various spin-sensitive applications and devices. Here, using scattering-type near-field scanning optical microscopy, we observe spin-orbit interactions introduced by a subwavelength semiring antenna integrated in a plasmonic circuit. Clear evidence of unidirectional excitation of surface plasmon polaritons is obtained by direct comparison of the amplitude- and phase-resolved near-field maps of the plasmonic nanocircuit under excitation with photons of opposite spin states coupled to a plasmonic nanoantenna. We present details of the antenna design and experimental methods to investigate the spatial variation of complex electromagnetic fields in a spin-sensitive plasmonic circuit. The reported findings offer valuable insights into the generation, characterization, and application of the photonic spin Hall effect in photonic integrated circuits for future and emerging spin-selective nanophotonic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Thomaschewski
- Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, The George Washington University, 800 22nd Street NW 5000 Science & Engineering Hall, Washington, D.C. 20052, United States
| | - Mike Prämassing
- Physikalisches Institut, Universität Bonn, Nussallee 12, 53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Hans-Joachim Schill
- Physikalisches Institut, Universität Bonn, Nussallee 12, 53115 Bonn, Germany
| | - Vladimir A Zenin
- Center for Nano Optics, University of Southern Denmark, DK-5230 Odense M, Denmark
| | - Sergey I Bozhevolnyi
- Center for Nano Optics, University of Southern Denmark, DK-5230 Odense M, Denmark
| | - Volker J Sorger
- Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, The George Washington University, 800 22nd Street NW 5000 Science & Engineering Hall, Washington, D.C. 20052, United States
- Florida Semiconductor Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32603, United States
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32603, United States
| | - Stefan Linden
- Physikalisches Institut, Universität Bonn, Nussallee 12, 53115 Bonn, Germany
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2
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Wu C, Ku C, Yu M, Yang J, Wu P, Huang C, Lu T, Huang J, Ishii S, Chen K. Near-Field Photodetection in Direction Tunable Surface Plasmon Polaritons Waveguides Embedded with Graphene. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2023; 10:e2302707. [PMID: 37661570 PMCID: PMC10602515 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202302707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 08/06/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023]
Abstract
2D materials have manifested themselves as key components toward compact integrated circuits. Because of their capability to circumvent the diffraction limit, light manipulation using surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs) is highly-valued. In this study, plasmonic photodetection using graphene as a 2D material is investigated. Non-scattering near-field detection of SPPs is implemented via monolayer graphene stacked under an SPP waveguide with a symmetric antenna. Energy conversion between radiation power and electrical signals is utilized for the photovoltaic and photoconductive processes of the gold-graphene interface and biased electrodes, measuring a maximum photoresponsivity of 29.2 mA W-1 . The generated photocurrent is altered under the polarization state of the input light, producing a 400% contrast between the maximum and minimum signals. This result is universally applicable to all on-chip optoelectronic circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chia‐Hung Wu
- College of PhotonicsNational Yang Ming Chiao Tung University301 Gaofa 3rd RoadTainan71150Taiwan
| | - Chih‐Jen Ku
- Institute of Imaging and Biomedical PhotonicsCollege of PhotonicsNational Yang Ming Chiao Tung University301 Gaofa 3rd RoadTainan71150Taiwan
| | - Min‐Wen Yu
- College of PhotonicsNational Yang Ming Chiao Tung University301 Gaofa 3rd RoadTainan71150Taiwan
| | - Jhen‐Hong Yang
- College of PhotonicsNational Yang Ming Chiao Tung University301 Gaofa 3rd RoadTainan71150Taiwan
| | - Pei‐Yuan Wu
- Institute of Photonics TechnologiesNational Tsing Hua UniversityHsinchu300Taiwan
| | - Chen‐Bin Huang
- Institute of Photonics TechnologiesNational Tsing Hua UniversityHsinchu300Taiwan
| | - Tien‐Chang Lu
- Department of PhotonicsCollege of Electrical and Computer EngineeringNational Yang Ming Chiao Tung UniversityHsinchu30010Taiwan
| | - Jer‐Shing Huang
- Leibniz Institute of Photonic TechnologyAlbert‐Einstein Straße 907745JenaGermany
- Institute of Physical Chemistry and Abbe Center of PhotonicsFriedrich‐Schiller‐Universität JenaHelmholtzweg 4D‐07743JenaGermany
- Research Center for Applied SciencesAcademia Sinica128 Academia Road, Sec. 2, Nankang DistrictTaipei11529Taiwan
- Department of ElectrophysicsNational Yang Ming Chiao Tung UniversityNo. 1001 Daxue Rd, East DistrictHsinchu30010Taiwan
| | - Satoshi Ishii
- Research Center for Materials Nanoarchitectonics (MANA)National Institute for Materials Science (NIMS)1‐1 NamikiTsukubaIbaraki305‐0044Japan
| | - Kuo‐Ping Chen
- Institute of Imaging and Biomedical PhotonicsCollege of PhotonicsNational Yang Ming Chiao Tung University301 Gaofa 3rd RoadTainan71150Taiwan
- Institute of Photonics TechnologiesNational Tsing Hua UniversityHsinchu300Taiwan
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3
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Cheng J, Zhang Z, Mei W, Cao Y, Ling X, Chen Y. Symmetry-breaking enabled topological phase transitions in spin-orbit optics. OPTICS EXPRESS 2023; 31:23621-23630. [PMID: 37475442 DOI: 10.1364/oe.494534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 06/18/2023] [Indexed: 07/22/2023]
Abstract
The topological phase transitions (TPT) of light refers to a topological evolution from one type of spin-orbit interaction to another, which has been recently found in beam scattering at optical interfaces and propagation in uniaxial crystals. In this work, the focusing of off-axis and partially masked circular-polarization Gaussian beams are investigated by using of a full-wave theory. Moreover, two different types of spin-orbit interactions (i.e., spin-dependent vortex generation and photonic spin-Hall effect) in the focusing system are unified from the perspective of TPT. It is demonstrated that as the off-axis distance or the masked area increases, a TPT phenomenon in the focused optical field takes place, evolving from the spin-dependent vortex generation to the spin-Hall shift of the beam centroids. The intrinsic mechanism is attributed to the cylindrical symmetry-breaking of the system. This symmetry-breaking induced TPT based on the method of vortex mode decomposition is further examined. The main difference between the TPT phenomenon observed here and that trigged by oblique incidence at optical interfaces or oblique propagation in uniaxial crystals is also uncovered. Our findings provide fruitful insights for understanding the spin-orbit interactions in optics, providing an opportunity for unifying the TPT phenomena in various spin-orbit photonics systems.
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4
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Krause B, Abadias G, Babonneau D, Michel A, Resta A, Coati A, Garreau Y, Vlad A, Plech A, Wochner P, Baumbach T. In Situ Study of the Interface-Mediated Solid-State Reactions during Growth and Postgrowth Annealing of Pd/a-Ge Bilayers. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023; 15:11268-11280. [PMID: 36791093 PMCID: PMC9983571 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.2c20600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Ohmic or Schottky contacts in micro- and nanoelectronic devices are formed by metal-semiconductor bilayer systems, based on elemental metals or thermally more stable metallic compounds (germanides, silicides). The control of their electronic properties remains challenging as their structure formation is not yet fully understood. We have studied the phase and microstructure evolution during sputter deposition and postgrowth annealing of Pd/a-Ge bilayer systems with different Pd/Ge ratios (Pd:Ge, 2Pd:Ge, and 4Pd:Ge). The room-temperature deposition of up to 30 nm Pd was monitored by simultaneous, in situ synchrotron X-ray diffraction, X-ray reflectivity, and optical stress measurements. With this portfolio of complementary real-time methods, we could identify the microstructural origins of the resistivity evolution during contact formation: Real-time X-ray diffraction measurements indicate a coherent, epitaxial growth of Pd(111) on the individual crystallites of the initially forming, polycrystalline Pd2Ge[111] layer. The crystallization of the Pd2Ge interfacial layer causes a characteristic change in the real-time wafer curvature (tensile peak), and a significant drop of the resistivity after 1.5 nm Pd deposition. In addition, we could confirm the isostructural interface formation of Pd/a-Ge and Pd/a-Si. Subtle differences between both interfaces originate from the lattice mismatch at the interface between compound and metal. The solid-state reaction during subsequent annealing was studied by real-time X-ray diffraction and complementary UHV surface analysis. We could establish the link between phase and microstructure formation during deposition and annealing-induced solid-state reaction: The thermally induced reaction between Pd and a-Ge proceeds via diffusion-controlled growth of the Pd2Ge seed crystallites. The second-phase (PdGe) formation is nucleation-controlled and takes place only when a sufficient Ge reservoir exists. The real-time access to structure and electronic properties on the nanoscale opens new paths for the knowledge-based formation of ultrathin metal/semiconductor contacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bärbel Krause
- Institut
für Photonenforschung und Synchrotronstrahlung (IPS), Karlsruher Institut für Technologie, D-76021 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Gregory Abadias
- Institut
Pprime, Département Physique et Mécanique des Matériaux,
UPR 3346 CNRS, Université de Poitiers, SP2MI, TSA 41123, Cedex 9 86073 Poitiers, France
| | - David Babonneau
- Institut
Pprime, Département Physique et Mécanique des Matériaux,
UPR 3346 CNRS, Université de Poitiers, SP2MI, TSA 41123, Cedex 9 86073 Poitiers, France
| | - Anny Michel
- Institut
Pprime, Département Physique et Mécanique des Matériaux,
UPR 3346 CNRS, Université de Poitiers, SP2MI, TSA 41123, Cedex 9 86073 Poitiers, France
| | - Andrea Resta
- Synchrotron
SOLEIL, L’Orme
des Merisiers, Départementale 128, 91190 Saint Aubin, France
| | - Alessandro Coati
- Synchrotron
SOLEIL, L’Orme
des Merisiers, Départementale 128, 91190 Saint Aubin, France
| | - Yves Garreau
- Synchrotron
SOLEIL, L’Orme
des Merisiers, Départementale 128, 91190 Saint Aubin, France
- Laboratoire
Matériaux et Phénomenes Quantiques, Université Paris Cité, 75013 Paris, France
| | - Alina Vlad
- Synchrotron
SOLEIL, L’Orme
des Merisiers, Départementale 128, 91190 Saint Aubin, France
| | - Anton Plech
- Institut
für Photonenforschung und Synchrotronstrahlung (IPS), Karlsruher Institut für Technologie, D-76021 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Peter Wochner
- Max
Planck Institute for Solid State Physics, Heisenbergstraße 1, D-70569 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Tilo Baumbach
- Institut
für Photonenforschung und Synchrotronstrahlung (IPS), Karlsruher Institut für Technologie, D-76021 Karlsruhe, Germany
- Laboratorium
für Applikationen der Synchrotronstrahlung (LAS), Karlsruher Institut für Technologie, D-76021 Karlsruhe, Germany
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5
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Li F, Yang ZY, Shi JJ, He XB. Subwavelength dichroic demultiplexer based on double Fabry-Perot cavities. OPTICS EXPRESS 2022; 30:37753-37759. [PMID: 36258357 DOI: 10.1364/oe.472582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Plasmonic demultiplexers hold promise for the realization of the subwavelength and high-splitting ratio dichroic splitter and have a wide range of applications from optical communication, and manipulation to ultrafast data treatment. However, this vision has not been realized for a long time due to lacking the suitable splitting structure design, which limits its further development of integrated photonic circuits. Here, we demonstrate a plasmonic demultiplexer with subwavelength feature size (0.54 µm) and broadband spectral (620-870 nm) range, and high-splitting ratio (17 dB in experiments and 20 dB in calculations). It consists of two adjacent Fabry-Perot cavities (covered by PMMA polymer) and coupling gratings, which are integrated with the Au waveguide. The relatively simple double cavities design of our device has a simple theoretical analysis and fabrication process. Our work has relevance for various optical applications, such as multiple wavelength photodetectors and optical multichannel interconnects.
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6
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Thomaschewski M, Zenin VA, Fiedler S, Wolff C, Bozhevolnyi SI. Plasmonic Lithium Niobate Mach-Zehnder Modulators. NANO LETTERS 2022; 22:6471-6475. [PMID: 35952309 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.2c00714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Lithium niobate Mach-Zehnder modulators (MZMs) are present in a wide range of technologies and though fulfilling the performance and reliability requirements of present applications, they are becoming progressively too bulky, power inefficient, and slow in switching to keep pace with future technological demands. Here, we utilize plasmonics to demonstrate the most efficient (VπL = 0.23 Vcm) lithium niobate MZM to date, consisting of gold nanostripes on lithium niobate that guide both plasmonic modes and electrical signals that control their relative optical phase delay, thereby enabling efficient electro-optic modulation. For high linearity (modulation depth of >2 dB), the proposed MZM inherently operates near its quadrature point by shifting the relative phase of the signal in the interferometric arms. The demonstrated lithium niobate MZM manifests the benefits of employing plasmonics for applications that demand compact (<1 mm2) and fast (>10 GHz) photonic components operating reliably at ambient temperatures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Thomaschewski
- Center for Nano Optics, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M, Denmark
| | - Vladimir A Zenin
- Center for Nano Optics, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M, Denmark
| | - Saskia Fiedler
- Center for Nano Optics, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M, Denmark
| | - Christian Wolff
- Center for Nano Optics, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M, Denmark
| | - Sergey I Bozhevolnyi
- Center for Nano Optics, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M, Denmark
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7
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Zhang C, Ma X, Zhai Y, Wu Z, Xu Y, Wang Q. Unidirectional coupling and efficient detection of near-infrared surface plasmon polaritons for on-chip optoelectronic interconnection. OPTICS EXPRESS 2022; 30:2888-2899. [PMID: 35209420 DOI: 10.1364/oe.450144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Plasmonic interconnection is one kind of the possible methods to construct next-generation optoelectronic integrated circuits. In this paper, the plasmonic interconnection device based on Ge in infrared band is constructed, through efficient electron-hole pair generation, the device can achieve high photocurrent response (0.25A/W). Because of the low plasmon coupling efficiency of the conventional basic periodic gratings, this paper optimized the design of the coupling structure and improved the coupling efficiency by 4 times through constructing a binary Bragg/periodic grating coupler which can realize unidirectional plasmon coupling with a simulated extinction ratio of 12.5 dB. The devices can be easily fabricated by single-step electron beam lithography and lift-off process. The experimental results verified a 3.5 times improvement in the SPPs current of the designed plasmonic interconnection device, which provides a technical path to realize efficient plasmon transmission and detection for on-chip optoelectronic interconnection.
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8
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Ma Y, Liu B, Huang Z, Li J, Han Z, Wu D, Zhou J, Ma Y, Wu Q, Maeda H. High-directionality spin-selective routing of photons in plasmonic nanocircuits. NANOSCALE 2022; 14:428-432. [PMID: 34897351 DOI: 10.1039/d1nr05733b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Efficient on-chip manipulation of photon spin is of crucial importance in developing future integrated nanophotonics as is electron spin in spintronics. The unidirectionality induced by the interaction between spin and orbital angular momenta suffers low efficiency in classical macroscopic optics, while it can be highly enhanced on subwavelength scales with suitable architectures. Here we propose and demonstrate a spin-sorting achiral split-ring coupler to unidirectionally excite dielectric-loaded plasmonic modes in two independent waveguides. We found experimentally that the impinging light with different spin can be selectively directed into one of two branching plasmonic waveguides with a directionality contrast up to 15.1 dB. A circular-helicity-independent compact beam splitter is also realized demonstrating great potential in designing complex interconnect nanocircuits. The illustrated approach is believed to open new avenues for developing advanced optical functionalities with a flexible degree of freedom in manipulation of on-chip chirality within chiral optics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youqiao Ma
- School of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210044, China.
| | - Bo Liu
- School of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210044, China.
| | - Zhiqin Huang
- School of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210044, China.
| | - Jinhua Li
- School of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210044, China.
| | - Zhanghua Han
- Shandong Key Laboratory of Optics and Photonic Devices, School of Physics and Electronics, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250358, China
| | - Di Wu
- School of Physics and Microelectronics, Key Laboratory of Materials Physics, Ministry of Education, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan 450052, China
| | - Jun Zhou
- Institute of Photonics, Faculty of Science, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China
| | - Yuan Ma
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3J 2X4, Canada
| | - Qiang Wu
- Department of physics and electrical engineering, Northumbria University, Newcastle, NE18ST UK
| | - Hiroshi Maeda
- Department of Information and Communication Engineering, Fukuoka Institute of Technology, Fukuoka 811-0295, Japan
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9
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Bittorf PH, Davoodi F, Taleb M, Talebi N. Mapping optical Bloch modes of a plasmonic square lattice in real and reciprocal spaces using cathodoluminescence spectroscopy. OPTICS EXPRESS 2021; 29:34328-34340. [PMID: 34809226 DOI: 10.1364/oe.437984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Strong electron-light interactions supported by the surface plasmon polaritons excited in metallic thin films can lead to faster optoelectronic devices. Merging surface polaritons with photonic crystals leads to the formation of Bloch plasmons, allowing for the molding of the flow of polaritons and the controlling of the optical density of states for even stronger electron-light interactions. Here, we use a two-dimensional square lattice of holes incorporated inside a plasmonic gold layer to investigate the interaction of surface plasmon polaritons with the square lattice and the formation of plasmonic Bloch modes. Cathodoluminescence spectroscopy and hyperspectral imaging are used for imaging the spatio-spectral near-field distribution of the optical Bloch modes in the visible to near infrared spectral ranges. In addition, the higher-order Brillouin zones of the plasmonic lattice are demonstrated by using angle-resolved cathodoluminescence mapping. We further complement our experimental results with numerical simulations of the optical modes supported by the plasmonic lattice that helps to better resolve the superposition of the various modes excited by the electron beam. Next to previous works in this context, our results thus place cathodoluminescence scanning spectroscopy and angle-resolved mapping as complementary techniques to uncover the spatio-spectral distribution of optical Bloch modes in real and reciprocal spaces.
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10
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Yezekyan T, Thomaschewski M, Bozhevolnyi SI. On-Chip Ge Photodetector Efficiency Enhancement by Local Laser-Induced Crystallization. NANO LETTERS 2021; 21:7472-7478. [PMID: 34469169 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.1c01281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Metal-semiconductor-metal plasmonic nanostructures enable both on-chip efficient manipulation and ultrafast photodetection of strongly confined modes by enhancing local electrostatic and optical fields. The latter is achieved by making use of nanostructured thin-film germanium (Ge) plasmonic-waveguide photodetectors. While their sizes and locations can be accurately controlled during the nanofabrication, the detector efficiencies are significantly reduced due to deposited Ge amorphous nature. We demonstrate that the efficiency of waveguide-integrated Ge plasmonic photodetectors can be increased significantly (more than 2 orders of magnitude) by spatially controlled laser-induced Ge crystallization. We investigate both free-space and waveguide-integrated Ge photodetectors subjected to 800 nm laser treatment, monitoring the degree of crystallization with Raman spectroscopy, and demonstrate the efficiency enhancement by detecting the telecom radiation. The demonstrated local postprocessing technique can be utilized in various nanophotonic devices for efficient and ultrafast on-chip radiation monitoring and detection, offering significantly improved detector characteristics without jeopardizing the performance of other components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Torgom Yezekyan
- Centre for Nano Optics, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M, Denmark
| | - Martin Thomaschewski
- Centre for Nano Optics, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M, Denmark
| | - Sergey I Bozhevolnyi
- Centre for Nano Optics, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230 Odense M, Denmark
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11
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Zhao Y, Qiu Y, Feng J, Zhao J, Chen G, Gao H, Zhao Y, Jiang L, Wu Y. Chiral 2D-Perovskite Nanowires for Stokes Photodetectors. J Am Chem Soc 2021; 143:8437-8445. [PMID: 34000194 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c02675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Structural engineering in multiple scales permits the integration of exotic properties into a single material, which boosts the development of ultracompact multifunctional devices. Layered perovskites are capable of cross-linking efficient carrier transport originating from few-layer perovskite frameworks with extended functionalities contributed by designable bulky organic cations and nanostructures, thus providing a platform for multiscale material engineering. Herein, high-performance Stokes-parameter photodetectors for arbitrary polarized light detection are realized on the basis of solution-processed chiral-perovskite nanowire arrays. The chiral ammonium cations intercalated between the perovskite layers are responsive to circularly polarized light with a maximum anisotropy factor of 0.15, while the strictly aligned nanowires with the anisotropic dielectric function result in a large polarized ratio of 1.6 to linearly polarized light. Single crystallinity and pure crystallographic orientation permit efficient in-plane carrier transport along the nanowires, yielding a responsivity of 47.1 A W-1 and a detectivity of 1.24 × 1013 Jones. By synergy of linear- and circular-polarization response with high optoelectronic performance for providing sufficient photocurrent contrasts, Stokes-parameter photodetection is demonstrated on these nanowires. Our Stokes-parameter photodetectors with a small footprint and high performances present promising applications toward polarization imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingjie Zhao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Bio-inspired Materials and Interfacial Science, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P.R. China.,School of Future Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P.R. China
| | - Yuchen Qiu
- College of Chemistry, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, P.R. China
| | - Jiangang Feng
- Division of Physics and Applied Physics, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637371, Singapore
| | - Jiahui Zhao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Bio-inspired Materials and Interfacial Science, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P.R. China
| | - Gaosong Chen
- Henan Key Laboratory of Crystalline Molecular Functional Materials, Henan International Joint Laboratory of Tumor Theranostical Cluster Materials, Green Catalysis Center, and College of Chemistry, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, P.R. China
| | - Hanfei Gao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Bio-inspired Materials and Interfacial Science, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P.R. China.,Ji Hua Laboratory, Foshan, Guangdong 528000, P.R. China
| | - Yuyan Zhao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Bio-inspired Materials and Interfacial Science, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P.R. China
| | - Lei Jiang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Bio-inspired Materials and Interfacial Science, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P.R. China.,School of Future Technology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P.R. China
| | - Yuchen Wu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Bio-inspired Materials and Interfacial Science, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P.R. China
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12
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Thomaschewski M, Wolff C, Bozhevolnyi SI. High-Speed Plasmonic Electro-Optic Beam Deflectors. NANO LETTERS 2021; 21:4051-4056. [PMID: 33929872 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.1c00945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Highly integrated active nanophotonics addressing both device footprint and operation speed demands is a key enabling technology for the next generation optical networks. Plasmonic systems have proven to be a serious contender to alleviate current performance limitations in electro-optic devices. Here, we demonstrate a plasmonic optical phased array (OPA) consisting of two 10 μm long plasmonic phase shifters, utilized to control the far-field radiation pattern of two subwavelength-separated emitters for aliasing-free beam steering with an angular range of ±5° and flat frequency response up to 18 GHz (with the potential bandwidth of 1.2 THz). Extreme optical and electrostatic field confinement with great spatial overlap results in high phase modulation efficiency (VπL = 0.24 Vcm). The demonstrated approach of using plasmonic lithium niobate technology for optical beam manipulation offers inertia-free, robust, ultracompact, and high-speed beam steering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Thomaschewski
- Centre for Nano Optics, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230, Odense M, Denmark
| | - Christian Wolff
- Centre for Nano Optics, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230, Odense M, Denmark
| | - Sergey I Bozhevolnyi
- Centre for Nano Optics, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230, Odense M, Denmark
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13
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Rothe M, Zhao Y, Müller J, Kewes G, Koch CT, Lu Y, Benson O. Self-Assembly of Plasmonic Nanoantenna-Waveguide Structures for Subdiffractional Chiral Sensing. ACS NANO 2021; 15:351-361. [PMID: 33233888 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c05240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Spin-momentum locking is a peculiar effect in the near-field of guided optical or plasmonic modes. It can be utilized to map the spinning or handedness of electromagnetic fields onto the propagation direction. This motivates a method to probe the circular dichroism of an illuminated chiral object. In this work, we demonstrate local, subdiffraction limited chiral coupling of light and propagating surface plasmon polaritons in a self-assembled system of a gold nanoantenna and a silver nanowire. A thin silica shell around the nanowire provides precise distance control and also serves as a host for fluorescent molecules, which indicate the direction of plasmon propagation. We characterize our nanoantenna-nanowire systems comprehensively through correlated electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, dark-field, and fluorescence imaging. Three-dimensional numerical simulations support the experimental findings. Besides our measurement of far-field polarization, we estimate sensing capabilities and derive not only a sensitivity of 1 mdeg for the ellipticity of the light field, but also find 103 deg cm2/dmol for the circular dichroism of an analyte locally introduced in the hot spot of the antenna-wire system. Thorough modeling of a prototypical design predicts on-chip sensing of chiral analytes. This introduces our system as an ultracompact sensor for chiral response far below the diffraction limit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Rothe
- Institut für Physik & IRIS Adlershof, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Newtonstraße 15, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Yuhang Zhao
- Institute of Soft Matter and Functional Materials, Helmholtz Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie, Hahn-Meitner-Platz 1, 14109 Berlin, Germany
| | - Johannes Müller
- Institut für Physik & IRIS Adlershof, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Newtonstraße 15, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Günter Kewes
- Institut für Physik & IRIS Adlershof, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Newtonstraße 15, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Christoph T Koch
- Institut für Physik & IRIS Adlershof, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Newtonstraße 15, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Yan Lu
- Institute of Soft Matter and Functional Materials, Helmholtz Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie, Hahn-Meitner-Platz 1, 14109 Berlin, Germany
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam, Germany
| | - Oliver Benson
- Institut für Physik & IRIS Adlershof, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Newtonstraße 15, 12489 Berlin, Germany
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14
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Li L, Wang J, Kang L, Liu W, Yu L, Zheng B, Brongersma ML, Werner DH, Lan S, Shi Y, Xu Y, Wang X. Monolithic Full-Stokes Near-Infrared Polarimetry with Chiral Plasmonic Metasurface Integrated Graphene-Silicon Photodetector. ACS NANO 2020; 14:16634-16642. [PMID: 33197172 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.0c00724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
The ability to detect the full-Stokes polarization of light is vital for a variety of applications that often require complex and bulky optical systems. Here, we report an on-chip polarimeter comprising four metasurface-integrated graphene-silicon photodetectors. The geometric chirality and anisotropy of the metasurfaces result in circular and linear polarization-resolved photoresponses, from which the full-Stokes parameters, including the intensity, orientation, and ellipticity of arbitrarily polarized incident infrared light (1550 nm), can be obtained. The design presents an ultracompact architecture while excluding the standard bulky optical components and structural redundancy. Computational extraction of full-Stokes parameters from mutual information among four detectors eliminates the need for a large absorption contrast between different polarization states. Our monolithic plasmonic metasurface integrated polarimeter is ideal for a variety of polarization-based applications including biological sensing, quantum information processing, and polarization photography.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingfei Li
- School of Micro-Nanoelectronics, ZJU-Hangzhou Global Scientific and Technological Innovation Center, ZJU-UIUC Institute, State Key Labs of Silicon Materials and Modern Optical Instrumentation, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 311200, China
- School of Electronic Science and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Junzhuan Wang
- School of Electronic Science and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Lei Kang
- Department of Electrical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Wei Liu
- School of Micro-Nanoelectronics, ZJU-Hangzhou Global Scientific and Technological Innovation Center, ZJU-UIUC Institute, State Key Labs of Silicon Materials and Modern Optical Instrumentation, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 311200, China
| | - Li Yu
- School of Electronic Science and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Binjie Zheng
- School of Electronic Science and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Mark L Brongersma
- Geballe Laboratory of Advanced Materials, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Douglas H Werner
- Department of Electrical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Shoufeng Lan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | - Yi Shi
- School of Electronic Science and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Yang Xu
- School of Micro-Nanoelectronics, ZJU-Hangzhou Global Scientific and Technological Innovation Center, ZJU-UIUC Institute, State Key Labs of Silicon Materials and Modern Optical Instrumentation, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 311200, China
| | - Xiaomu Wang
- School of Electronic Science and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
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15
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Wen T, Zhang W, Liu S, Hu A, Zhao J, Ye Y, Chen Y, Qiu CW, Gong Q, Lu G. Steering valley-polarized emission of monolayer MoS 2 sandwiched in plasmonic antennas. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2020; 6:eaao0019. [PMID: 32490202 PMCID: PMC7239647 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aao0019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2019] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Monolayer transition metal dichalcogenides have intrinsic spin-valley degrees of freedom, making it appealing to exploit valleytronic and optoelectronic applications at the nanoscale. Here, we demonstrate that a chiral plasmonic antenna consisting of two stacked gold nanorods can modulate strongly valley-polarized photoluminescence (PL) of monolayer MoS2 in a broad spectral range at room temperature. The valley-polarized PL of the MoS2 using the antenna can reach up to ~47%, with approximately three orders of PL magnitude enhancement within the plasmonic nanogap. Besides, the K and K' valleys under opposite circularly polarized light excitation exhibit different emission intensities and directivities in the far field, which can be attributed to the modulation of the valley-dependent excitons by the chiral antenna in both the excitation and emission processes. The distinct features of the ultracompact hybrid suggest potential applications for valleytronic and photonic devices, chiral quantum optics, and high-sensitivity detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Te Wen
- State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics, Frontiers Science Center for Nano-optoelectronics, and Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China
| | - Weidong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics, Frontiers Science Center for Nano-optoelectronics, and Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China
| | - Shuai Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics, Frontiers Science Center for Nano-optoelectronics, and Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Aiqin Hu
- State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics, Frontiers Science Center for Nano-optoelectronics, and Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Jingyi Zhao
- State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics, Frontiers Science Center for Nano-optoelectronics, and Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Yu Ye
- State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics, Frontiers Science Center for Nano-optoelectronics, and Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Yang Chen
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117583, Singapore
| | - Cheng-Wei Qiu
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117583, Singapore
| | - Qihuang Gong
- State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics, Frontiers Science Center for Nano-optoelectronics, and Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China
| | - Guowei Lu
- State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics, Frontiers Science Center for Nano-optoelectronics, and Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Extreme Optics, Shanxi University, Taiyuan, Shanxi 030006, China
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16
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Prämassing M, Liebtrau M, Schill HJ, Irsen S, Linden S. Interferometric near-field characterization of plasmonic slot waveguides in single- and poly-crystalline gold films. OPTICS EXPRESS 2020; 28:12998-13007. [PMID: 32403782 DOI: 10.1364/oe.384629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2019] [Accepted: 03/11/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Single-crystalline gold films show superior plasmonic properties compared to their poly-crystalline counterparts. However, this advantage comes at the cost of a more complex preparation process. It is thus crucial to validate whether the impact of the material quality on the performance of the respective plasmonic device justifies this additional effort. In order to address this question for the case of plasmonic slot waveguides, we present interferometric near-field measurements at telecommunication wavelengths on slot waveguides in single- and poly-crystalline gold films. We observe significantly larger propagation lengths in the case of single-crystalline gold films for slot widths below 100 nm. In contrast for larger widths, both gold films give rise to comparable propagation lengths.
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17
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Thomaschewski M, Zenin VA, Wolff C, Bozhevolnyi SI. Plasmonic monolithic lithium niobate directional coupler switches. Nat Commun 2020; 11:748. [PMID: 32029717 PMCID: PMC7005156 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-14539-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2019] [Accepted: 01/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Lithium niobate (LN) has been the material of choice for electro-optic modulators owing to its excellent physical properties. While conventional LN electro-optic modulators continue to be the workhorse of the modern optoelectronics, they are becoming progressively too bulky, expensive, and power-hungry to fully serve the needs of this industry. Here, we demonstrate plasmonic electro-optic directional coupler switches consisting of two closely spaced nm-thin gold nanostripes on LN substrates that guide both coupled electromagnetic modes and electrical signals that control their coupling, thereby enabling ultra-compact switching and modulation functionalities. Extreme confinement and good spatial overlap of both slow-plasmon modes and electrostatic fields created by the nanostripes allow us to achieve a 90% modulation depth with 20-μm-long switches characterized by a broadband electro-optic modulation efficiency of 0.3 V cm. Our monolithic LN plasmonic platform enables a wide range of cost-effective optical communication applications that demand μm-scale footprints, ultrafast operation and high environmental stability. Lithium niobate is essential for electro-optic modulation, however, combining it with the attractive features of plasmonics is largely unexplored. Here, the authors demonstrate ultra-compact electrooptic switching with low voltage-length product, fast nonlinear response and low capacitance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Thomaschewski
- Centre for Nano Optics, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230, Odense M, Denmark.
| | - Vladimir A Zenin
- Centre for Nano Optics, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230, Odense M, Denmark
| | - Christian Wolff
- Centre for Nano Optics, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230, Odense M, Denmark
| | - Sergey I Bozhevolnyi
- Centre for Nano Optics, University of Southern Denmark, Campusvej 55, DK-5230, Odense M, Denmark.
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18
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Tsesses S, Cohen K, Ostrovsky E, Gjonaj B, Bartal G. Spin-Orbit Interaction of Light in Plasmonic Lattices. NANO LETTERS 2019; 19:4010-4016. [PMID: 31046293 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.9b01343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
In the past decade, the spin-orbit interaction (SOI) of light has been a driving force in the design of metamaterials, metasurfaces, and schemes for light-matter interaction. A hallmark of the spin-orbit interaction of light is the spin-based plasmonic effect, converting spin angular momentum of propagating light to near-field orbital angular momentum. Although this effect has been thoroughly investigated in circular symmetry, it has yet to be characterized in a noncircular geometry, where whirling, periodic plasmonic fields are expected. Using phase-resolved near-field microscopy, we experimentally demonstrate the SOI of circularly polarized light in nanostructures possessing dihedral symmetry. We show how interaction with hexagonal slits results in four topologically different plasmonic lattices, controlled by engineered boundary conditions, and reveal a cyclic nature of the spin-based plasmonic effect which does not exist for circular symmetry. Finally, we calculate the optical forces generated by the plasmonic lattices, predicting that light with mere spin angular momentum can exert torque on a multitude of particles in an ordered fashion to form an optical nanomotor array. Our findings may be of use in both biology and chemistry, as a means for simultaneous trapping, manipulation, and excitation of multiple objects, controlled by the polarization of light.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shai Tsesses
- Andrew and Erna Viterbi Department of Electrical Engineering , Technion - Israel Institute of Technology , 3200003 Haifa , Israel
| | - Kobi Cohen
- Andrew and Erna Viterbi Department of Electrical Engineering , Technion - Israel Institute of Technology , 3200003 Haifa , Israel
| | - Evgeny Ostrovsky
- Andrew and Erna Viterbi Department of Electrical Engineering , Technion - Israel Institute of Technology , 3200003 Haifa , Israel
| | - Bergin Gjonaj
- Faculty of Medical Sciences , Albanian University , Durres St. , Tirana 1000 , Albania
| | - Guy Bartal
- Andrew and Erna Viterbi Department of Electrical Engineering , Technion - Israel Institute of Technology , 3200003 Haifa , Israel
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19
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Schörner C, Adhikari S, Lippitz M. A Single-Crystalline Silver Plasmonic Circuit for Visible Quantum Emitters. NANO LETTERS 2019; 19:3238-3243. [PMID: 31009229 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.9b00773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Plasmonic waveguides are key elements in nanophotonic devices, serving as optical interconnects between nanoscale light sources and detectors. Multimode operation in plasmonic two-wire transmission lines promises important degrees of freedom for near-field manipulation and information encoding. However, highly confined plasmon propagation along gold nanostructures is typically limited to the near-infrared region due to ohmic losses, excluding all visible quantum emitters from plasmonic circuitry. We report on the top-down fabrication of complex plasmonic nanostructures in single-crystalline silver plates. We demonstrate the controlled remote excitation of a small ensemble of fluorophores by a set of waveguide modes and the emission of the visible luminescence into the waveguide with high efficiency. This approach opens up the study of a nanoscale light-matter interaction between complex plasmonic waveguides and a large variety of quantum emitters available in the visible spectral range.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Schörner
- Experimental Physics III , University of Bayreuth , D-95447 Bayreuth , Germany
| | - Subhasis Adhikari
- Experimental Physics III , University of Bayreuth , D-95447 Bayreuth , Germany
| | - Markus Lippitz
- Experimental Physics III , University of Bayreuth , D-95447 Bayreuth , Germany
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20
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Krauss E, Razinskas G, Köck D, Grossmann S, Hecht B. Reversible Mapping and Sorting the Spin of Photons on the Nanoscale: A Spin-Optical Nanodevice. NANO LETTERS 2019; 19:3364-3369. [PMID: 31013109 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.9b01162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The photon spin is an important resource for quantum information processing as is the electron spin in spintronics. However, for subwavelength confined optical excitations, polarization as a global property of a mode cannot be defined. Here, we show that any polarization state of a plane-wave photon can reversibly be mapped to a pseudospin embodied by the two fundamental modes of a subwavelength plasmonic two-wire transmission line. We design a device in which this pseudospin evolves in a well-defined fashion throughout the device reminiscent of the evolution of photon polarization in a birefringent medium and the behavior of electron spins in the channel of a spin field-effect transistor. The significance of this pseudospin is enriched by the fact that it is subject to spin-orbit locking. Combined with optically active materials to exert external control over the pseudospin precession, our findings could enable spin-optical transistors, that is, the routing and processing of quantum information with light on a subwavelength scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enno Krauss
- NanoOptics and Biophotonics Group, Experimental Physics 5 , University of Würzburg , Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg , Germany
| | - Gary Razinskas
- NanoOptics and Biophotonics Group, Experimental Physics 5 , University of Würzburg , Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg , Germany
| | - Dominik Köck
- NanoOptics and Biophotonics Group, Experimental Physics 5 , University of Würzburg , Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg , Germany
| | - Swen Grossmann
- NanoOptics and Biophotonics Group, Experimental Physics 5 , University of Würzburg , Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg , Germany
| | - Bert Hecht
- NanoOptics and Biophotonics Group, Experimental Physics 5 , University of Würzburg , Am Hubland, 97074 Würzburg , Germany
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