Flash NanoPrecipitation as an Agrochemical Nanocarrier Formulation Platform: Phloem Uptake and Translocation after Foliar Administration

From Plants to Plants: Plant-Derived Biological Polymers as Sustainable and Safe Nanocarriers for Direct Delivery of DNA to Plant Cells

Sustainable plant-derived biopolymers cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) and Zein protein were used to deliver plasmid DNA with a reporter GFP gene (pDNA) to plant cells. CNC and Zein were modified with the cationic agent 2,3-epoxypropyltrimethylammonium chloride (EPTMAC) to electrostatically bind the biopolymers to negatively charged pDNA. Established pDNA-CNC and pDNA-Zeins conjugates were delivered to tobacco cells by leaf injection and vacuum infiltration of tobacco leaves and seedlings. Both methods effectively provided transient GFP expression in exposed plant cells that was visualized by confocal microscopy and confirmed by qRT-PCR (GFP gene expression) and Western blot (GFP protein expression). Our findings support the idea that nanopolymers derived from agricultural waste residues can successfully be used to advance plant transformation and gene editing. Delivering genetic material using biocompatible, plant-based nanopolymers in large-scale vacuum infiltration of plant tissues reduces existing limitations of plant transformation and increases the speed of the transformation process.

Nanotechnology in Plant Nanobionics: Mechanisms, Applications, and Future Perspectives

Plants are vital to ecosystems and human survival, possessing intricate internal and inter-plant signaling networks that allow them to adapt quickly to changing environments and maintain ecological balance. The integration of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) with plant systems has led to the emergence of plant nanobionics, a field that holds the potential to enhance plant capabilities significantly. This integration may result in improved photosynthesis, increased nutrient uptake, and accelerated growth and development. Plants treated with ENMs can be stress mitigators, pollutant detectors, environmental sensors, and even light emitters. This review explores recent advancements in plant nanobionics, focusing on nanoparticle (NP) synthesis, adhesion, uptake, transport, fate, and application in enhancing plant physiological functioning, stress mitigation, plant health monitoring, energy production, environmental sensing, and overall plant growth and productivity. Potential research directions and challenges in plant nanobionics are highlighted, and how material optimization and innovation are propelling the growth in the field of smart agriculture, pollution remediation, and energy/biomass production are discussed.

Nanocarrier foliar uptake pathways affect delivery of active agents and plant physiological response

Layered double hydroxide (LDH) nanoparticles enable foliar delivery of genetic material, herbicides, and nutrients to promote plant growth and yield. Understanding the foliar uptake route of nanoparticles is needed to maximize their effectiveness and avoid unwanted negative effects. In this study, we investigated how delivering layered double hydroxide (d = 37 ± 1.5 nm) through the adaxial (upper) or abaxial (lower) side of leaves affects particle uptake, nutrient delivery, and photosynthesis in tomato plants. LDH applied on the adaxial side was embedded in the cuticle and accumulated at the anticlinal pegs between epidermal cells. On the abaxial side, LDH particles penetrated the cuticle less, but the presence of the stomata enables penetration to deeper leaf layers. Accordingly, the average penetration levels of LDH relative to the cuticle were 2.47 ± 0.07, 1.25 ± 0.13, and 0.75 ± 0.1 μm for adaxial, abaxial with stomata, and abaxial without stomata leaf segments, respectively. In addition, the colocalization of LDH with the cuticle was ∼2.3 times lower for the adaxial application, indicating the ability to penetrate the cuticle. Despite the low adaxial stomata density, LDH-mediated delivery of magnesium (Mg) from leaves to roots was 46% higher for the adaxial than abaxial application. In addition, adaxial application leads to ∼24% higher leaf CO2 assimilation rate and higher biomass accumulation. The lower efficiency from the abaxial side was, at least partially, a result of interference with the stomata functionality which reduced stomatal conductance and evapotranspiration by 28% and 25%, respectively, limiting plant photosynthesis. This study elucidates how foliar delivery pathways through different sides of the leaves affect their ability to deliver active agents into plants and consequently affect the plants' physiological response. That knowledge enables a more efficient use of nanocarriers for agricultural applications.

Nano-sized metal oxide fertilizers for sustainable agriculture: balancing benefits, risks, and risk management strategies

This critical review comprehensively analyses nano-sized metal oxide fertilizers (NMOFs) and their transformative potential in sustainable agriculture. It examines the characteristics and benefits of different NMOFs, such as zinc, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, nickel, calcium, titanium, cerium, and silicon oxide nanoparticles. NMOFs offer unique advantages such as increased reactivity, controlled-release mechanisms, and targeted nutrient delivery to address micronutrient deficiencies, enhance crop resilience, and improve nutrient efficiency. The review underscores the essential role of micronutrients in plant metabolism, crop growth, and ecosystem health, highlighting their importance alongside macronutrients. NMOFs present significant benefits over traditional fertilizers, including enhanced plant uptake, reduced nutrient losses, and decreased environmental impact. However, the review also critically examines potential risks associated with NMOFs, such as nanoparticle toxicity and environmental persistence. A comparative analysis of different metal types used in nanofertilizers is provided, detailing their primary advantages and potential drawbacks. The review emphasizes the need for cautious management of NMOFs to ensure their safe and effective use in agriculture. It calls for comprehensive research to understand the long-term effects of NMOFs on plant health, soil ecosystems, and human health. By integrating insights from material science, plant biology, and environmental science, this review offers a holistic perspective on the potential of NMOFs to address global food security challenges amid resource constraints and climate change. The study concludes by outlining future research directions and advocating for interdisciplinary collaboration to advance sustainable agricultural practices and optimize the benefits of NMOFs.

Towards realizing nano-enabled precision delivery in plants

Nanocarriers (NCs) that can precisely deliver active agents, nutrients and genetic materials into plants will make crop agriculture more resilient to climate change and sustainable. As a research field, nano-agriculture is still developing, with significant scientific and societal barriers to overcome. In this Review, we argue that lessons can be learned from mammalian nanomedicine. In particular, it may be possible to enhance efficiency and efficacy by improving our understanding of how NC properties affect their interactions with plant surfaces and biomolecules, and their ability to carry and deliver cargo to specific locations. New tools are required to rapidly assess NC-plant interactions and to explore and verify the range of viable targeting approaches in plants. Elucidating these interactions can lead to the creation of computer-generated in silico models (digital twins) to predict the impact of different NC and plant properties, biological responses, and environmental conditions on the efficiency and efficacy of nanotechnology approaches. Finally, we highlight the need for nano-agriculture researchers and social scientists to converge in order to develop sustainable, safe and socially acceptable NCs.

Critical Review: Uptake and Translocation of Organic Nanodelivery Vehicles in Plants

Nanodelivery vehicles (NDVs) are engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) that, within the agricultural sector, have been investigated for their ability to improve uptake and translocation of agrochemicals, control release, or target specific tissues or subcellular compartments. Both inorganic and organic NDVs have been studied for agrochemical delivery in the literature, but research on the latter has been slower to develop than the literature on the former. Since the two classes of nanomaterials exhibit significant differences in surface chemistry, physical deformability, and even colloidal stability, trends that apply to inorganic NDVs may not hold for organic NDVs, and vice versa. We here review the current literature on the uptake, translocation, biotransformation, and cellular and subcellular internalization of organic NDVs in plants following foliar or root administration. A background on nanomaterials and plant physiology is provided as a leveling ground for researchers in the field. Trends in uptake and translocation are examined as a function of NDV properties and compared to those reported for inorganic nanomaterials. Methods for assessing fate and transport of organic NDVs in plants (a major bottleneck in the field) are discussed. We end by identifying knowledge gaps in the literature that must be understood in order to rationally design organic NDVs for precision agrochemical nanodelivery.