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Phanthuwongpakdee J, Babel S. Unraveling the mechanism of iodate adsorption by anthocyanin-rich fruit waste as green adsorbents for Applications of radioactive iodine remediation in water environment. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 250:118502. [PMID: 38365049 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2024.118502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Revised: 02/12/2024] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 02/18/2024]
Abstract
In aquatic settings, radioactive iodine from nuclear waste can exist as iodate (IO3-). This study explored the efficiency and mechanism of IO3- adsorption by minimally modified anthocyanin-based adsorbents. Pomegranate peels and mangosteen pericarps were selected from an initial screening test and could remove over 70% of 10 mg/L IO3-. The adsorbents yielded adsorption capacity (q) of 9.59 mg/g and 2.31 mg/g, respectively, at room temperature. At 5 °C, q values increased to 14.5 and 5.13 mg/g, respectively. Pomegranate peels showed superior performance, with approximately 4 times the anthocyanin content of mangosteen pericarps. Both adsorbents took 120 min to reach adsorption equilibrium, and no desorption was observed after 8 days (I-131 half-time). Confirmation of physisorption was indicated by the fit of the pseudo-first-order reaction model, negative entropy (exothermic), and negative activation energy (Arrhenius equation). IO3- inclusion was confirmed through adsorbent surface modifications in scanning electron microscope images, the increased iodine content post-adsorption in energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy analysis, and alterations in peaks corresponding to anthocyanin-related functional groups in Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis. X-ray absorption near-edge spectroscopy at 4564.54 eV showed that iodine was retained in the form of IO3-. Through the computational analysis, electrostatic forces, hydrogen bonds, and π-halogen interactions were deduced as mechanisms of IO3- adsorption by anthocyanin-based adsorbents. Anthocyanin-rich fruit wastes emerged as sustainable materials for eliminating IO3- from water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakkapon Phanthuwongpakdee
- Faculty of Environment and Resource Studies, Mahidol University, 999 Phutthamonthon Sai 4 Road, Salaya, Phutthamonthon District, Nakhon Pathom 73170, Thailand
| | - Sandhya Babel
- School of Bio-Chemical Engineering and Technology, Sirindhorn International Institute of Technology (SIIT), Thammasat University, P.O Box 22, Pathum Thani 12121, Thailand.
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Guo Q, Li J, Zhao Y, Li L, He L, Zhao F, Zhai F, Zhang M, Chen L, Chai Z, Wang S. Record High Iodate Anion Capture by a Redox-Active Cationic Polymer Network. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2024:e202400849. [PMID: 38656826 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202400849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2024] [Revised: 03/19/2024] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
As a critical radioactive anionic contaminant, traditional adsorbents primarily remove iodate (IO3 -) through ion exchange or hard acid-hard base interactions, but suffer from limited affinity and capacity. Herein, employing the synergistic effect of ion exchange and redox, we successfully synthesized a redox-active cationic polymer network (SCU-CPN-6, [C9H10O2N5 ⋅ Cl]n) by merging guanidino groups with ion-exchange capability and phenolic groups with redox ability via a Schiff base reaction. SCU-CPN-6 exhibits a groundbreaking adsorption capacity of 896 mg/g for IO3 -. The inferior adsorption capacities of polymeric networks containing only redox (~0 mg/g) or ion exchange (232 mg/g) fragments underscore the synergistic "1+1>2" effect of the two mechanisms. Besides, SCU-CPN-6 shows excellent uptake selectivity for IO3 - in the presence of high concentrations of SO4 2-, Cl-, and NO3 -. Meanwhile, a high distribution coefficient indicates its exemplary deep-removal performance for low IO3 - concentration. The synergic strategy not only presents a breakthrough solution for the efficient removal of IO3 - but also establishes a promising avenue for the design of advanced adsorbents for diverse applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection, Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiological Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Jie Li
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection, Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiological Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Yuting Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection, Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiological Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Lingyi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection, Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiological Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Linwei He
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection, Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiological Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Fuqiang Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection, Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiological Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Fuwan Zhai
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection, Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiological Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Mingxing Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection, Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiological Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Long Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection, Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiological Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Zhifang Chai
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection, Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiological Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Shuao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection, Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiological Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, China
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3
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Saslow SA, Cordova EA, Escobedo NM, Qafoku O, Bowden ME, Resch CT, Lahiri N, Nienhuis ET, Boglaienko D, Levitskaia TG, Meyers P, Hager JR, Emerson HP, Pearce CI, Freedman VL. Accumulation mechanisms for contaminants on weak-base hybrid ion exchange resins. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 459:132165. [PMID: 37531768 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Revised: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023]
Abstract
Mechanism of hexavalent chromium removal (Cr(VI) as CrO42-) by the weak-base ion exchange (IX) resin ResinTech® SIR-700-HP (SIR-700) from simulated groundwater is assessed in the presence of radioactive contaminants iodine-129 (as IO3-), uranium (U as uranyl UO22+), and technetium-99 (as TcO4-), and common environmental anions sulfate (SO42-) and chloride (Cl-). Batch tests using the acid sulfate form of SIR-700 demonstrated Cr(VI) and U(VI) removal exceeded 97%, except in the presence of high SO42- concentrations (536 mg/L) where Cr(VI) and U(VI) removal decreased to ≥ 80%. However, Cr(VI) removal notably improved with co-mingled U(VI) that complexes with SO42- at the protonated amine sites. These U-SO42- complexes are integral to U(VI) removal, as confirmed by the decrease in U(VI) removal (<40%) when the acid chloride form of SIR-700 was used instead. Solid phase characterization revealed that CrO42- is removed by IX with SO42- complexes and/or reduced to amorphous Cr(III)(OH)3 at secondary alcohol sites. Tc(VII)O4- and I(V)O3- also undergo chemical reduction, following a similar removal mechanism. Oxyanion removal preference is determined by the anion reduction potential (CrO42->TcO4->IO3-), geometry, and charge density. For these reasons, 39% and 69% of TcO4- and 17% and 39% of IO3- are removed in the presence and absence of Cr(VI), respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah A Saslow
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland 99354, WA, USA.
| | - Elsa A Cordova
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland 99354, WA, USA
| | - Nancy M Escobedo
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland 99354, WA, USA
| | - Odeta Qafoku
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland 99354, WA, USA
| | - Mark E Bowden
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland 99354, WA, USA
| | - Charles T Resch
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland 99354, WA, USA
| | - Nabajit Lahiri
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland 99354, WA, USA
| | - Emily T Nienhuis
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland 99354, WA, USA
| | - Daria Boglaienko
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland 99354, WA, USA
| | - Tatiana G Levitskaia
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland 99354, WA, USA.
| | - Peter Meyers
- ResinTech, Inc., 160 Copper Road, West Berlin, 08091 NJ, USA
| | - Jacqueline R Hager
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland 99354, WA, USA
| | - Hilary P Emerson
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland 99354, WA, USA
| | - Carolyn I Pearce
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland 99354, WA, USA.
| | - Vicky L Freedman
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland 99354, WA, USA
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Asmussen RM, Westesen A, Cordova EA, Fujii Yamagata AL, Schonewill PP, Moore AC, Bourchy A, Saslow SA, Smith GL, Riley BJ, Skeen RS. Iodine Removal from Carbonate-Containing Alkaline Liquids Using Strong Base Resins, Hybrid Resins, and Silver Precipitation. Ind Eng Chem Res 2023. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.2c03527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- R. Matthew Asmussen
- Energy and Environment Directorate, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle BLVD, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
| | - Amy Westesen
- Energy and Environment Directorate, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle BLVD, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
| | - Elsa A. Cordova
- Energy and Environment Directorate, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle BLVD, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
| | - Alessandra Lie Fujii Yamagata
- Energy and Environment Directorate, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle BLVD, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
| | - Philip P. Schonewill
- Energy and Environment Directorate, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle BLVD, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
| | - Aryiana C. Moore
- Energy and Environment Directorate, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle BLVD, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
| | - Agathe Bourchy
- Energy and Environment Directorate, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle BLVD, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
| | - Sarah A. Saslow
- Energy and Environment Directorate, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle BLVD, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
| | - Gary L. Smith
- Energy and Environment Directorate, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle BLVD, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
| | - Brian J. Riley
- Energy and Environment Directorate, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle BLVD, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
| | - Rodney S. Skeen
- Washington River Protection Solutions, LLC, 2505 Garlick Rd, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
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Hao Y, Tian Z, Liu C, Xiao C. Recent advances in the removal of radioactive iodine by bismuth-based materials. Front Chem 2023; 11:1122484. [PMID: 36762197 PMCID: PMC9902955 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2023.1122484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 01/09/2023] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Nowadays, the demand for nuclear power is continue increasing due to its safety, cleanliness, and high economic benefits. Radioactive iodine from nuclear accidents and nuclear waste treatment processes poses a threat to humans and the environment. Therefore, the capture and storage of radioactive iodine are vital. Bismuth-based (Bi-based) materials have drawn much attention as low-toxicity and economical materials for removing and immobilizing iodine. Recent advances in adsorption and immobilization of vapor iodine by the Bi-based materials are discussed in this review, in addition with the removal of iodine from solution. It points out the neglected areas in this research topic and provides suggestions for further development and application of Bi-based materials in the removal of radioactive iodine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuxun Hao
- Institute of Zhejiang University-Quzhou, Quzhou, China,College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Zhenjiang Tian
- Institute of Zhejiang University-Quzhou, Quzhou, China,College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Chuanying Liu
- Institute of Zhejiang University-Quzhou, Quzhou, China,College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China,*Correspondence: Chuanying Liu, ; Chengliang Xiao,
| | - Chengliang Xiao
- Institute of Zhejiang University-Quzhou, Quzhou, China,College of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China,*Correspondence: Chuanying Liu, ; Chengliang Xiao,
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Efficient removal of iodide/iodate from aqueous solutions by Purolite A530E resin. J Radioanal Nucl Chem 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s10967-023-08786-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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Robshaw TJ, Turner J, Tuck O, Pyke C, Kearney S, Simoni M, Sharrad CA, Walkley B, Ogden MD. Functionality screening to help design effective materials for radioiodine abatement. Front Chem 2022; 10:997147. [PMID: 36329859 PMCID: PMC9623042 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2022.997147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper is part of a growing body of research work looking at the synthesis of an optimal adsorbent for the capture and containment of aqueous radioiodine from nuclear fuel reprocessing waste. 32 metalated commercial ion exchange resins were subjected to a two-tier screening assessment for their capabilities in the uptake of iodide from aqueous solutions. The first stage determined that there was appreciable iodide capacity across the adsorbent range (12–220 mg·g−1). Candidates with loading capacities above 40 mg·g−1 were progressed to the second stage of testing, which was a fractional factorial experimental approach. The different adsorbents were treated as discrete variables and concentrations of iodide, co-contaminants and protons (pH) as continuous variables. This gave rise to a range of extreme conditions, which were representative of the industrial challenges of radioiodine abatement. Results were fitted to linear regression models, both for the whole dataset (R2 = 59%) and for individual materials (R2 = 18–82%). The overall model determined that iodide concentration, nitrate concentration, pH and interactions between these factors had significant influences on the uptake. From these results, the top six materials were selected for project progression, with others discounted due to either poor uptake or noticeable iodide salt precipitation behaviour. These candidates exhibited reasonable iodide uptake in most experimental conditions (average of >20 mg·g−1 hydrated mass), comparing favourably with literature values for metallated adsorbents. Ag-loaded Purolite S914 (thiourea functionality) was the overall best-performing material, although some salt precipitation was observed in basic conditions. Matrix effects not withstanding it is recommended that metalated thiourea, bispicolylamine, and aminomethylphosphonic acid functionalized silicas warrant further exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas J. Robshaw
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, the University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
- Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford, United Kingdom
| | - Joshua Turner
- National Nuclear Laboratory, Central Laboratory, Sellafield, Seascale, United Kingdom
| | - Olivia Tuck
- National Nuclear Laboratory, Central Laboratory, Sellafield, Seascale, United Kingdom
| | - Caroline Pyke
- National Nuclear Laboratory, Central Laboratory, Sellafield, Seascale, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah Kearney
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, the University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Marco Simoni
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, the University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Clint A. Sharrad
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, the University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Brant Walkley
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, the University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Mark D. Ogden
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, the University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
- *Correspondence: Mark D. Ogden,
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Riley BJ, Chong S, Beck CL. Iodine Vapor Reactions with Pure Metal Wires at Temperatures of 100–139 °C in Air. Ind Eng Chem Res 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.1c03902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Brian J. Riley
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle Blvd., Richland, Washington 99334, United States
| | - Saehwa Chong
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle Blvd., Richland, Washington 99334, United States
| | - Chelsie L. Beck
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle Blvd., Richland, Washington 99334, United States
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Robshaw TJ, Turner J, Kearney S, Walkley B, Sharrad CA, Ogden MD. Capture of aqueous radioiodine species by metallated adsorbents from wastestreams of the nuclear power industry: a review. SN APPLIED SCIENCES 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s42452-021-04818-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Abstract
Iodine-129 poses a significant challenge in the drive towards lowering radionuclide emissions from used nuclear fuel recycling operations. Various techniques are employed for capture of gaseous iodine species, but it is also present, mainly as iodide anions, in problematic residual aqueous wastestreams, which have stimulated research interest in technologies for adsorption and retention of the radioiodine. This removal effort requires specialised adsorbents, which use soft metals to create selectivity in the challenging chemical conditions. A review of the literature, at laboratory scale, reveals a number of organic, inorganic and hybrid adsorbent matrices have been investigated for this purpose. They are functionalised principally by Ag metal, but also Bi, Cu and Pb, using numerous synthetic strategies. The iodide capacity of the adsorbents varies from 13 to 430 mg g−1, with ion-exchange resins and titanates displaying the highest maximum uptakes. Kinetics of adsorption are often slow, requiring several days to reach equilibrium, although some ligated metal ion and metal nanoparticle systems can equilibrate in < 1 h. Ag-loaded materials generally exhibit superior selectivity for iodide verses other common anions, but more consideration is required of how these materials would function successfully in industrial operation; specifically their performance in dynamic column experiments and stability of the bound radioiodine in the conversion to final wasteform and subsequent geological storage.
Article highlights
Metallated adsorbents for the capture and retention of radioiodine in the nuclear industry are assessed.
The strengths and weaknesses of organic, inorganic and hybrid support matrices and loading mechanisms are discussed.
Pathways for progression of this technology are proposed.
Graphic abstract
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Lawter AR, Levitskaia TG, Qafoku O, Bowden ME, Colon FC, Qafoku NP. Simultaneous immobilization of aqueous co-contaminants using a bismuth layered material. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RADIOACTIVITY 2021; 237:106711. [PMID: 34388522 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvrad.2021.106711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Revised: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The remediation of co-located contaminants in the vadose zone can be challenging due to accessibility and responses of different contaminants to remedial actions. At the Hanford Site (WA, USA), multiple radionuclides and other hazardous contaminants are present in the vadose zone and groundwater, including iodine-129 (I), technetium-99 (Tc), uranium-238 (U), chromium (Cr), and nitrate (NO3-). We evaluated a layered Bi oxyhydroxide material for its potential to remove individual and co-located contaminants with a series of batch experiments that investigated a range of plume conditions, followed by solid phase characterization of the reacted bismuth material. The results demonstrated successful removal of four contaminants (>98% removal of I, Tc, U, and Cr from the aqueous phase after 30 days) when tested individually. When contaminants were combined, a slight decrease in Tc removal occurred (-6%p). The addition of sediment decreased the removal for Tc and I, but U and Cr removal was unaffected. The results of these batch tests demonstrated that the bismuth based oxy-hydroxide material is a promising material for sequestering multiple contaminants in situ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda R Lawter
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland, WA, USA, 99352.
| | - Tatiana G Levitskaia
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland, WA, USA, 99352
| | - Odeta Qafoku
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland, WA, USA, 99352
| | - Mark E Bowden
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland, WA, USA, 99352
| | - Ferdinan Cintron Colon
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland, WA, USA, 99352
| | - Nikolla P Qafoku
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), 902 Battelle Boulevard, Richland, WA, USA, 99352
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