General Thermodynamic-Controlled Coating Method to Prepare Janus Mesoporous Nanomotors for Improving Tumor Penetration

Recent Advances in Micro/Nanomotor for the Therapy and Diagnosis of Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease poses a significant global public health threat with a high incidence that can result in severe mortality and disability. The lack of targeted effects from traditional therapeutic drugs on atherosclerosis may cause damage to other organs and tissues, necessitating the need for a more focused approach to address this dilemma. Micro/nanomotors are self-propelled micro/nanoscale devices capable of converting external energy into autonomous movement, which offers advantages in enhancing penetration depth and retention while increasing contact area with abnormal sites, such as atherosclerotic plaque, inflammation, and thrombosis, within blood vessel walls. Recent studies have demonstrated the crucial role micro/nanomotors play in treating atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Hence, this review highlights the recent progress of micro/nanomotor technology in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, including the effective promotion of micro/nanomotors in the circulatory system, overcoming hemorheological barriers, targeting the atherosclerotic plaque microenvironment, and targeting intracellular drug delivery, to facilitate atherosclerotic plaque localization and therapy. Furthermore, we also describe the potential application of micro/nanomotors in the imaging of vulnerable plaque. Finally, we discuss key challenges and prospects for treating atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease while emphasizing the importance of designing individualized management strategies specific to its causes and microenvironmental factors.

Micro/Nanomotor-Driven Intelligent Targeted Delivery Systems: Dynamics Sources and Frontier Applications

Micro/nanomotors represent a promising class of drug delivery carriers capable of converting surrounding chemical or external energy into mechanical power, enabling autonomous movement. Their distinct autonomous propulsive force distinguishes them from other carriers, offering significant potential for enhancing drug penetration across cellular and tissue barriers. A comprehensive understanding of micro/nanomotor dynamics with various power sources is crucial to facilitate their transition from proof-of-concept to clinical application. In this review, micro/nanomotors are categorized into three classes based on their energy sources: endogenously stimulated, exogenously stimulated, and live cell-driven. The review summarizes the mechanisms governing micro/nanomotor movements under these energy sources and explores factors influencing autonomous motion. Furthermore, it discusses methods for controlling micro/nanomotor movement, encompassing aspects related to their structure, composition, and environmental factors. The remarkable propulsive force exhibited by micro/nanomotors makes them valuable for significant biomedical applications, including tumor therapy, bio-detection, bacterial infection therapy, inflammation therapy, gastrointestinal disease therapy, and environmental remediation. Finally, the review addresses the challenges and prospects for the application of micro/nanomotors. Overall, this review emphasizes the transformative potential of micro/nanomotors in overcoming biological barriers and enhancing therapeutic efficacy, highlighting their promising clinical applications across various biomedical fields.

Matrix-degrading soft-nanoplatform with enhanced tissue penetration for amplifying photodynamic therapeutic efficacy of breast cancer

The dense extracellular matrix (ECM) in the tumor microenvironment forms an abnormal physical barrier, which impedes the delivery and penetration of nanomedicines and hinders their therapeutic efficacy. Herein, we synthesize matrix-degrading soft-nanocapsules composed of human serum albumin (HSA) and hyaluronidase (HAase) for overcoming the obstruction of ECM in the tumor microenvironment. The matrix-degrading human serum albumin/hyaluronidase soft-nanocapsules, referred to as HSA/HAase SNCs, possess a uniform diameter, inward hollow structure, and wrinkled morphology. In vitro biocompatibility results indicate that the HSA/HAase SNCs display no adverse effects on the viability of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), smooth muscle cells (SMCs), and mouse breast cancer (4T1) cells and do not induce hemolysis towards red blood cells (RBCs). The HSA/HAase SNCs exhibit a 1.4-fold increase in tumor cellular uptake compared to the stiff-counterparts and enhanced penetration in 4T1-, mouse colon carcinoma 26- (CT26-), and mouse pancreatic cancer- (PanO2-) multicellular spheroids. Thanks to the advanced biological properties, a photodynamic platform prepared by loading Ce6 in the HSA/HAase SNCs (HSA/HAase@Ce6) shows improved reactive oxygen species production, a stronger killing effect for cancer cells, and deeper penetration in tumor tissues. In vivo experiments show that HSA/HAase@Ce6 effectively inhibits tumor growth in breast cancer mouse models. RNA-seq analysis of the mice that received the treatment of HSA/HAase@Ce6 shows enrichment of signaling pathways associated with ECM-degradation, which demonstrates that the matrix-degrading nanocapsules overcome the ECM-induced physical barriers in tumors. Overall, the matrix-degrading soft-nanoplatform represents a highly promising strategy to overcome ECM-induced physical barriers and enhance the therapeutic efficacy of nanomedicines.

Manganese-induced Photothermal-Ferroptosis for Synergistic Tumor Therapy

Ferroptosis-related tumor therapy based on nanomedicines has recently gained significant attention. However, the therapeutic performance is still hindered by the tumor's physical barriers such as the fibrotic tumor matrix and elevated interstitial fluid pressure, as well as chemical barriers like glutathione (GSH) overabundance. These physicochemical barriers impede the bioavailability of nanomedicines and compromise the therapeutic efficacy of lipid reactive oxygen species (ROS). Thus, this study pioneers a manganese-mediated overcoming of physicochemical barriers in the tumor microenvironment using organosilica-based nanomedicine (MMONs), which bolsters the synergy of photothermal-ferroptosis treatment. The MMONs display commendable proficiency in overcoming tumor physical barriers, due to their MnO2-mediated shape-morphing and softness-transformation ability, which facilitates augmented cellular internalization, enhanced tumor accumulation, and superior drug penetration. Also, the MMONs possess excellent capability in chemical barrier overcoming, including MnO2-mediated dual GSH clearance and enhanced ROS generation, which facilitates ferroptosis and heat shock protein inhibition. Notably, the resulting integration of physical and chemical barrier overcoming leads to amplified photothermal-ferroptosis synergistic tumor therapy both in vitro and in vivo. Accordingly, the comparative proteomic analysis has identified promoted ferroptosis with a transient inhibitory response observed in the mitochondria. This research aims to improve treatment strategies to better fight the complex defenses of tumors.

Recent advances in the development of tumor microenvironment-activatable nanomotors for deep tumor penetration

Cancer represents a significant threat to human health, with the use of traditional chemotherapy drugs being limited by their harsh side effects. Tumor-targeted nanocarriers have emerged as a promising solution to this problem, as they can deliver drugs directly to the tumor site, improving drug effectiveness and reducing adverse effects. However, the efficacy of most nanomedicines is hindered by poor penetration into solid tumors. Nanomotors, capable of converting various forms of energy into mechanical energy for self-propelled movement, offer a potential solution for enhancing drug delivery to deep tumor regions. External force-driven nanomotors, such as those powered by magnetic fields or ultrasound, provide precise control but often necessitate bulky and costly external equipment. Bio-driven nanomotors, propelled by sperm, macrophages, or bacteria, utilize biological molecules for self-propulsion and are well-suited to the physiological environment. However, they are constrained by limited lifespan, inadequate speed, and potential immune responses. To address these issues, nanomotors have been engineered to propel themselves forward by catalyzing intrinsic "fuel" in the tumor microenvironment. This mechanism facilitates their penetration through biological barriers, allowing them to reach deep tumor regions for targeted drug delivery. In this regard, this article provides a review of tumor microenvironment-activatable nanomotors (fueled by hydrogen peroxide, urea, arginine), and discusses their prospects and challenges in clinical translation, aiming to offer new insights for safe, efficient, and precise treatment in cancer therapy.

Multimodal Imaging-Guided Photoimmunotherapy of Pancreatic Cancer by Organosilica Nanomedicine

Immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) treatments have contributed to substantial clinical progress. However, challenges persist, including inefficient drug delivery and penetration into deep tumor areas, inadequate response to ICB treatments, and potential risk of inflammation due to over-activation of immune cells and uncontrolled release of cytokines following immunotherapy. In response, this study, for the first time, presents a multimodal imaging-guided organosilica nanomedicine (DCCGP) for photoimmunotherapy of pancreatic cancer. The novel DCCGP nanoplatform integrates fluorescence, magnetic resonance, and real-time infrared photothermal imaging, thereby enhancing diagnostic precision and treatment efficacy for pancreatic cancer. In addition, the incorporated copper sulfide nanoparticles (CuS NPs) lead to improved tumor penetration and provide external regulation of immunotherapy via photothermal stimulation. The synergistic immunotherapy effect is realized through the photothermal behavior of CuS NPs, inducing immunogenic cell death and relieving the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Coupling photothermal stimulation with αPD-L1-induced ICB, the platform amplifies the clearance efficiency of tumor cells, achieving an optimized synergistic photoimmunotherapy effect. This study offers a promising strategy for the clinical application of ICB-based combined immunotherapy and presents valuable insights for applications of organosilica in precise tumor immunotherapy and theranostics.

Magnetite-based Janus nanoparticles, their synthesis and biomedical applications

The advent of Janus nanoparticles has been a great breakthrough in the emerging field of nanomaterials. Janus nanoparticles refer to a single structure with two distinct chemical functions on either side. Owing to their asymmetric structures, they can be utilized in a variety of applications where monomorphic particles are insufficient. In the last decade, a wide variety of materials have been employed to fabricate Janus nanoparticles, and due to the great advantages of magnetite (Iron-oxide) NPs, they have been considered as one of the best candidates. With the main benefit of magnetic controlling, magnetite Janus nanoparticles fulfill great promises, especially in biomedical areas such as bioimaging, cancer therapies, theranostics, and biosensing. The intrinsic characteristics of magnetite Janus nanoparticles (MJNPs) even hold great potential in magnetite Janus forms of micro-/nanomotors. Despite the great interest and potential in magnetic Janus NPs, the need for a comprehensive review on MJNPs with a concentration on magnetite NPs has been overlooked. Herein, we present recent advancements in the magnetite-based Janus nanoparticles in the flourishing field of biomedicine. First, the synthesis and fabrication methods of Janus nanoparticles are discussed. Then we will delve into their intriguing biomedical applications, with a separate section for magnetite Janus micro-/nanomotors in biomedicine. And finally, the challenges and future outlook are provided. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology Diagnostic Tools > Diagnostic Nanodevices Diagnostic Tools > In Vitro Nanoparticle-Based Sensing.

In vivo applications of micro/nanorobots

Untethered robots in the size range of micro/nano-scale offer unprecedented access to hard-to-reach areas of the body. In these challenging environments, autonomous task completion capabilities of micro/nanorobots have been the subject of research in recent years. However, most of the studies have presented preliminary in vitro results that can significantly differ under in vivo settings. Here, we focus on the studies conducted with animal models to reveal the current status of micro/nanorobotic applications in real-world conditions. By a categorization based on target locations, we highlight the main strategies employed in organs and other body parts. We also discuss key challenges that require interest before the successful translation of micro/nanorobots to the clinic.