Greatly Facilitated Two-Electron Electroreduction of Oxygen into Hydrogen Peroxide over TiO2 by Mn Doping

Metal-Based Oxygen Reduction Electrocatalysts for Efficient Hydrogen Peroxide Production

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a high-value chemical widely used in electronics, textiles, paper bleaching, medical disinfection, and wastewater treatment. Traditional production methods, such as the anthraquinone oxidation process and direct synthesis, require high energy consumption, and involve risks from toxic substances and explosions. Researchers are now exploring photochemical, electrochemical, and photoelectrochemical synthesis methods to reduce energy use and pollution. This review focuses on the 2-electron oxygen reduction reaction (2e- ORR) for the electrochemical synthesis of H2O2, and discusses how catalyst active sites influence O2 adsorption. Strategies to enhance H2O2 selectivity by regulating these sites are presented. Catalysts require strong O2 adsorption to initiate reactions and weak *OOH adsorption to promote H2O2 formation. The review also covers advances in single-atom catalysts (SACs), multi-metal-based catalysts, and highlights non-noble metal oxides, especially perovskite oxides, for their versatile structures and potential in 2e- ORR. The potential of localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) effects to enhance catalyst performance is also discussed. In conclusion, emphasis is placed on optimizing catalyst structures through theoretical and experimental methods to achieve efficient and selective H2O2 production, aiming for sustainable and commercial applications.

Understanding Advanced Transition Metal-Based Two Electron Oxygen Reduction Electrocatalysts from the Perspective of Phase Engineering

Non-noble transition metal (TM)-based compounds have recently become a focal point of extensive research interest as electrocatalysts for the two electron oxygen reduction (2e- ORR) process. To efficiently drive this reaction, these TM-based electrocatalysts must bear unique physiochemical properties, which are strongly dependent on their phase structures. Consequently, adopting engineering strategies toward the phase structure has emerged as a cutting-edge scientific pursuit, crucial for achieving high activity, selectivity, and stability in the electrocatalytic process. This comprehensive review addresses the intricate field of phase engineering applied to non-noble TM-based compounds for 2e- ORR. First, the connotation of phase engineering and fundamental concepts related to oxygen reduction kinetics and thermodynamics are succinctly elucidated. Subsequently, the focus shifts to a detailed discussion of various phase engineering approaches, including elemental doping, defect creation, heterostructure construction, coordination tuning, crystalline design, and polymorphic transformation to boost or revive the 2e- ORR performance (selectivity, activity, and stability) of TM-based catalysts, accompanied by an insightful exploration of the phase-performance correlation. Finally, the review proposes fresh perspectives on the current challenges and opportunities in this burgeoning field, together with several critical research directions for the future development of non-noble TM-based electrocatalysts.

Electrochemical production of hydrogen peroxide by non-noble metal-doped g-C3N4 under a neutral electrolyte

Electrochemical oxygen reduction (ORR) for the production of clean hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is an effective alternative to industrial anthraquinone methods. The development of highly active, stable, and 2e- ORR oxygen reduction electrocatalysts while suppressing the competing 4e- ORR pathway is currently the main challenge. Herein, bimetallic doping was successfully achieved based on graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) with the simultaneous introduction of K and Co, whereby 2D porous K-Co/CNNs nanosheets were obtained. The introduction of Co promoted the selectivity for H2O2, while the introduction of K not only promoted the formation of 2D nanosheets of g-C3N4, but also inhibited the ablation of H2O2 by K-Co/CNNs. Electrochemical studies showed that the selectivity of H2O2 in K-Co/CNNs under neutral electrolyte was as high as 97%. After 24 h, the H2O2 accumulation of K-Co/CNNs was as high as 31.7 g L-1. K-Co/CNNs improved the stability of H2O2 by inhibiting the ablation of H2O2, making it a good 2e- ORR catalyst and providing a new research idea for the subsequent preparation of H2O2.

Boron Bifunctional Catalysts for Rapid Degradation of Persistent Organic Pollutants in a Metal-Free Electro-Fenton Process: O2 and H2O2 Activation Process

Metals usually served as the active sites of the heterogeneous bifunctional electro-Fenton reaction, which faced the challenge of poor stability under acidic or even neutral conditions. Exploring a metal-free heterogeneous bifunctional electro-Fenton catalyst can effectively solve the above problems. In this work, a stable metal-free heterogeneous bifunctional boron-modified porous carbon catalyst (BTA-1000) was synthesized. For the BTA-1000 catalyst, the yield of H2O2 (294 mg/L) significantly increased. The degradation rate of phenol by BTA-1000 (0.242 min-1) increased by an order of magnitude, compared with the porous carbon catalyst (0.0105 min-1). The BTA catalyst could rapidly degrade industrial dye wastewater, and its specific energy consumption was 5.52 kW h kg-1 COD-1, lower than that in previous reports (6.38-7.4 kW h kg-1 COD-1). DFT and XPS revealed that C═O and -BC2O groups jointly promoted the generation of H2O2, and the -BCO2 group played dominant roles in the generation of •OH because the oxygen atom near the electron-giving groups (-BCO2 group) facilitated the formation of hydrogen bond and H2O2 adsorption. This work gained deep insights into the reaction mechanism of the boron-modified porous carbon catalyst, which helped to guide the development of metal-free heterogeneous bifunctional electro-Fenton catalysts.

The development of cobalt phosphide co-catalysts on BiVO4 photoanodes to improve H2O2 production

Photoanodic hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) production via water oxidation is limited by low yields and poor selectivity. Herein, four variations of cobalt phosphides, including pristine CoP and Co₂P crystals, and two mixed-phase cobalt phosphides (CoP/Co₂P) with different ratios, were applied as co-catalysts on the BiVO₄ (BVO) photoanode to improve H₂O₂ production. The optimal yield and selectivity were approximately 9.6 µmol‧h^-1‧cm^-2 and 25.2 % at a voltage bias of 1.7 V vs reversible hydrogen electrode (V_RHE) under sunlight illumination, respectively. This performance is approximately 1.8 times that of pristine BVO photoanode. The roles of the Co and P sites were investigated. In particular, the Co site promotes the breaking of one HO bond in water to form OH^• radicals, which is the rate-determining step in H₂O₂ production. The P site plays an important role in the desorption of H₂O₂ formed from the catalyst, which is responsible for the recovery of fresh catalytic sites. Among the four samples, Co₂P exhibited the best performance for H₂O₂ production because it had the highest rate of OH^• formation owing to its improved accumulation property. This study offers a rational design strategy for co-catalysts for photoanodic H₂O₂ production.

Enhanced Selectivity in the Electroproduction of H2 O2 via F/S Dual-Doping in Metal-Free Nanofibers

Electrocatalytic two-electron oxygen reduction (2e^- ORR) to hydrogen peroxide (H₂ O₂ ) is attracting broad interest in diversified areas including paper manufacturing, wastewater treatment, production of liquid fuels, and public sanitation. Current efforts focus on researching low-cost, large-scale, and sustainable electrocatalysts with high activity and selectivity. Here a large-scale H₂ O₂ electrocatalysts based on metal-free carbon fibers with a fluorine and sulfur dual-doping strategy is engineered. Optimized samples yield with a high onset potential of 0.814 V versus reversible hydrogen electrode (RHE), an almost ideal 2e^- pathway selectivity of 99.1%, outperforming most of the recently reported carbon-based or metal-based electrocatalysts. First principle theoretical computations and experiments demonstrate that the intermolecular charge transfer coupled with electron spin redistribution from fluorine and sulfur dual-doping is the crucial factor contributing to the enhanced performances in 2e^- ORR. This work opens the door to the design and implementation of scalable, earth-abundant, highly selective electrocatalysts for H₂ O₂ production and other catalytic fields of industrial interest.

Composition Engineering of Amorphous Nickel Boride Nanoarchitectures Enabling Highly Efficient Electrosynthesis of Hydrogen Peroxide

Developing advanced electrocatalysts with exceptional two electron (2e^- ) selectivity, activity, and stability is crucial for driving the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) to produce hydrogen peroxide (H₂ O₂ ). Herein, a composition engineering strategy is proposed to flexibly regulate the intrinsic activity of amorphous nickel boride nanoarchitectures for efficient 2e^- ORR by oriented reduction of Ni²⁺ with different amounts of BH₄ ^- . Among borides, the amorphous NiB₂ delivers the 2e^- selectivity close to 99% at 0.4 V and over 93% in a wide potential range, together with a negligible activity decay under prolonged time. Notably, an ultrahigh H₂ O₂ production rate of 4.753 mol g_cat ^-1 h^-1 is achieved upon assembling NiB₂ in the practical gas diffusion electrode. The combination of X-ray absorption and in situ Raman spectroscopy, as well as transient photovoltage measurements with density functional theory, unequivocally reveal that the atomic ratio between Ni and B induces the local electronic structure diversity, allowing optimization of the adsorption energy of Ni toward *OOH and reducing of the interfacial charge-transfer kinetics to preserve the OO bond.

Tailoring surface carboxyl groups of mesoporous carbon boosts electrochemical H2O2 production

Oxygen-doped porous carbon materials have been shown promising performance for electrochemical two-electron oxygen reduction reaction (2e^- ORR), an efficient approach for the safe and continuous on-site generation of H₂O₂. The regulation and mechanism understanding of active oxygen-containing functional groups (OFGs) remain great challenges. Here, OFGs modified porous carbon were prepared by thermal oxidation (MC-12-Air), HNO₃ oxidation (MC-12-HNO₃) and H₂O₂ solution hydrothermal treatment (MC-12-H₂O₂), respectively. Structural characterization showed that the oxygen doping content of three catalysts reached about 20%, with the almost completely maintained specific surface area (exception of MC-12- HNO₃). Spectroscopic characterization further revealed that hydroxyl groups are mainly introduced into MC-12-Air, while carboxyl groups are mainly introduced into MC-12- HNO₃ and MC-12- H₂O₂. Compared with the pristine catalyst, three oxygen-functionalized catalysts showed enhanced activity and H₂O₂ selectivity in 2e^- ORR. Among them, MC-12-H₂O₂ exhibited the highest catalytic activity and selectivity of 94 %, as well as a considerable HO₂^- accumulation of 46.2 mmol L^-1 and excellent stability in an extended test over 36 h in a H-cell. Electrochemical characterization demonstrated the promotion of OFGs on ORR kinetics and the greater contribution of carboxyl groups to the intrinsically catalytic activity. DFT calculations confirmed that the electrons are transferred from carboxyl groups to adjacent carbon and the enhanced adsorption strength toward *OOH intermediate, leading to a lower energy barrier for forming *OOH on carboxyl terminated carbon atoms.

Electrocatalytic two-electron oxygen reduction over nitrogen doped hollow carbon nanospheres

The two-electron oxygen reduction reaction (2e^- ORR) has become a hopeful alternative for production of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), but its practical feasibility is hindered by the lack of efficient electrocatalysts to achieve high activity and selectivity. Herein, we successfully synthesized outstanding nitrogen doped hollow carbon nanospheres (NHCSs) for electrochemical production of H₂O₂. In 0.1 M KOH, NHCSs exhibit superior and sustained catalytic activity for the 2e^- ORR with an unordinary selectivity of 96.6%. Impressively, such NHCSs manifest an ultrahigh H₂O₂ yield rate of 7.32 mol g_cat.^-1  h^-1 and a high faradaic efficiency of 96.7% at 0.5 V in an H-cell system. Density functional theory calculations were performed to further reveal the catalytic mechanism involved.

A TiO2-x nanobelt array with oxygen vacancies: an efficient electrocatalyst toward nitrite conversion to ammonia

Electrocatalytic nitrite reduction not only holds significant potential in the control of nitrite contamination in the natural environment, but also is an attractive approach for sustainable ammonia synthesis. In this communication, we report that a TiO_2-x nanobelt array with oxygen vacancies on a titanium plate is able to convert nitrite into ammonia with a high faradaic efficiency of 92.7% and a large yield of 7898 μg h^-1 cm^-2 in alkaline solution. This monolithic catalyst also shows high durability with the maintenance of its catalytic activity for 12 h. Theoretical calculations further reveal the critical role of oxygen vacancies in nitrite electroreduction.

Photoelectrochemical Antibacterial Platform Based on Rationally Designed Black TiO2-x Nanowires for Efficient Inactivation against Bacteria

A hyphenated strategy for photoelectrochemical (PEC) disinfection is proposed with rationally designed black TiO_2-x as a photoresponsive material. The PEC method, a fusion of electrochemistry and photocatalysis, is an innovative and effective way to improve photocatalytic performance, which imparts certain properties to the photoelectrode and greatly promotes the charge transfer, thus effectively inhibiting the recombination of carriers and greatly promoting the catalytic efficiency. The oxygen vacancy (V_o) engineering on TiO₂ is conducted to obtain black TiO_2-x, which shows a much larger light absorption region in the full solar spectrum than the pristine white TiO₂ and presents excellent PEC sterilization performance. The bactericidal efficiency with the PEC method is 10 times higher than that with the photocatalytic method, inactivating 99% of bacteria within a short time of 30 min. In addition, the black titanium oxide nanowires (B-TiO_2-x NWs) are grown on flexible carbon cloth (CC) to form a sandwich structural self-cleaning face mask. The bacteria adhering to the surface of the mask will be sterilized quickly and efficiently under the illumination of visible light. The face mask with the characteristics of superior antibacterial effect and long service lifetime will be used for epidemic prevention and reduce the second pollution.

Photocatalytic Recovery of Gold from a Non-Cyanide Gold Plating Solution as Au Nanoparticle-Decorated Semiconductors

In this work, a photocatalytic process was carried out to recover gold (Au) from the simulated non-cyanide plating bath solution. Effects of semiconductor types (TiO₂, WO₃, Nb₂O₃, CeO₂, and Bi₂O₃), initial pH of the solution (3-10), and type of complexing agents (Na₂S₂O₃ and Na₂SO₃) and their concentrations (1-4 mM each) on Au recovery were explored. Among all employed semiconductors, TiO₂ exhibited the highest photocatalytic activity to recover Au from the simulated spent plating bath solution both in the absence and presence of complexing agents, in which Au was completely recovered within 15 min at a pH of 6.5. The presence of complexing agents remarkably affected the size of deposited Au on the TiO₂ surface, the localized surface plasmon effect (LSPR) behavior, and the valence band (VB) edge position of the obtained Au/TiO₂, without a significant change in the textural properties or the band gap energy. The photocatalytic activity of the obtained Au/TiO₂ tested via two photocatalytic processes depended on the common reduction mechanism rather than the textural or optical properties. As a result, the Au/TiO₂ NPs obtained from the proposed recovery process are recommended for use as a photocatalyst for the reactions occurring at the conduction band rather than at the valence band. Notably, they exhibited good stability after the fifth photocatalytic cycle for Au recovery from the actual cyanide plating bath solution.