Multifunctional Poly(L-lactide)-Polyethylene Glycol-Grafted Graphene Quantum Dots for Intracellular MicroRNA Imaging and Combined Specific-Gene-Targeting Agents Delivery for Improved Therapeutics

Construction of a Self-Assembled DNA Nanofirework for Signal Amplification and Intracellular miRNA Imaging

Nonenzymatic DNA catalytic amplification strategies have greatly improved the detection of biomolecules. However, the membrane barrier and the complex intracellular environment remain the two main challenges for efficient intracellular RNA imaging. Herein, we designed a self-assembled DNA nanofirework for amplified microRNA (miRNA) imaging in living cells. The self-assembled DNA nanofireworks exhibited high sensitivity and specificity for miRNA detection, achieving excellent internalization efficiency through endocytosis, while demonstrating enhanced biostability and biocompatibility. These properties enable powerful signal-amplified miRNA imaging in live cells. Under optimized conditions, this nanoprobe achieves a linear detection range of 0.5-8.0 nM for miRNA-21 with a detection limit of 89.3 pM. This design represents an optimal integration of DNA nanotechnology with nucleic acid amplification for intracellular biomolecule analysis, providing valuable insights for understanding the biological functions of important biomolecules in disease pathogenesis and potential therapeutic applications.

Graphene Quantum Dots from Natural Carbon Sources for Drug and Gene Delivery in Cancer Treatment

Cancer therapy is constantly evolving, with a growing emphasis on targeted and efficient treatment options. In this context, graphene quantum dots (GQDs) have emerged as promising agents for precise drug and gene delivery due to their unique attributes, such as high surface area, photoluminescence, up-conversion photoluminescence, and biocompatibility. GQDs can damage cancer cells and exhibit intrinsic photothermal conversion and singlet oxygen generation efficiency under specific light irradiation, enhancing their effectiveness. They serve as direct therapeutic agents and versatile drug delivery platforms capable of being easily functionalized with various targeting molecules and therapeutic agents. However, challenges such as achieving uniform size and morphology, precise bandgap engineering, and scalability, along with minimizing cytotoxicity and the environmental impact of their production, must be addressed. Additionally, there is a need for a more comprehensive understanding of cellular mechanisms and drug release processes, as well as improved purification methods. Integrating GQDs into existing drug delivery systems enhances the efficacy of traditional treatments, offering more efficient and less invasive options for cancer patients. This review highlights the transformative potential of GQDs in cancer therapy while acknowledging the challenges that researchers must overcome for broader application.

A Review of Nanotechnology in microRNA Detection and Drug Delivery

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small, non-coding RNAs that play a crucial role in regulating gene expression. Dysfunction in miRNAs can lead to various diseases, including cancers, neurological disorders, and cardiovascular conditions. To date, approximately 2000 miRNAs have been identified in humans. These small molecules have shown promise as disease biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets. Therefore, identifying miRNA biomarkers for diseases and developing effective miRNA drug delivery systems are essential. Nanotechnology offers promising new approaches to addressing scientific and medical challenges. Traditional miRNA detection methods include next-generation sequencing, microarrays, Northern blotting, and reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). Nanotechnology can serve as an effective alternative to Northern blotting and RT-qPCR for miRNA detection. Moreover, nanomaterials exhibit unique properties that differ from larger counterparts, enabling miRNA therapeutics to more effectively enter target cells, reduce degradation in the bloodstream, and be released in specific tissues or cells. This paper reviews the application of nanotechnology in miRNA detection and drug delivery systems. Given that miRNA therapeutics are still in the developing stages, nanotechnology holds great promise for accelerating miRNA therapeutics development.

Tumor diagnosis using carbon-based quantum dots: Detection based on the hallmarks of cancer

Carbon-based quantum dots (CQDs) have been shown to have promising application value in tumor diagnosis. Their use, however, is severely hindered by the complicated nature of the nanostructures in the CQDs. Furthermore, it seems impossible to formulate the mechanisms involved using the inadequate theoretical frameworks that are currently available for CQDs. In this review, we re-consider the structure-property relationships of CQDs and summarize the current state of development of CQDs-based tumor diagnosis based on biological theories that are fully developed. The advantages and deficiencies of recent research on CQDs-based tumor diagnosis are thus explained in terms of the manifestation of nine essential changes in cell physiology. This review makes significant progress in addressing related problems encountered with other nanomaterials.

Graphene family in cancer therapy: recent progress in cancer gene/drug delivery applications

In the past few years, the development in the construction and architecture of graphene based nanocomplexes has dramatically accelerated the use of nano-graphene for therapeutic and diagnostic purposes, fostering a new area of nano-cancer therapy. To be specific, nano-graphene is increasingly used in cancer therapy, where diagnosis and treatment are coupled to deal with the clinical difficulties and challenges of this lethal disease. As a distinct family of nanomaterials, graphene derivatives exhibit outstanding structural, mechanical, electrical, optical, and thermal capabilities. Concurrently, they can transport a wide variety of synthetic agents, including medicines and biomolecules, such as nucleic acid sequences (DNA and RNA). Herewith, we first provide an overview of the most effective functionalizing agents for graphene derivatives and afterward discuss the significant improvements in the gene and drug delivery composites based on graphene.

Graphene quantum dots: A comprehensive overview

Because of their prospective applications and exceptional features, graphene quantum dots (GQDs) have gotten a lot of recognition as a new class of fluorescent carbon materials. One of the carbon family’s newest superstars is the GQD. Due to its exceptional optoelectrical qualities, it has sparked a lot of curiosity since its debut in 2008. Two of the most important traits are a band gap that is not zero, biocompatibility, and highly changeable characteristics. GQDs have several important characteristics. GQDs have shown potential in a variety of fields, for instance, catalysis, sensing, energy devices, drug delivery, bioimaging, photothermal, and photodynamic therapy. Because this area constantly evolves, it is vital to recognize emerging GQD concerns in the current breakthroughs, primarily since some specific uses and developments in the case of GQDs synthesis have not been thoroughly investigated through previous studies. The current results in the properties, synthesis, as well as benefits of GQDs are discussed in this review study. As per the findings of this research, the GQD’s future investigation is boundless, mainly if the approaching investigation focuses on purifying simplicity and environmentally friendly synthesis, as well as boosting photoluminescence quantum output and manufacturing output of GQDs.

Applications of Carbon Dots for the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease

There are currently approximately 50 million victims of Alzheimer's disease (AD) worldwide. The exact cause of the disease is unknown at this time, but amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain are hallmarks of the disease. Current drug treatments for AD may slow the progression of the disease and improve the quality of life of patients, but they are often only minimally effective and are not cures. A major obstacle to developing and delivering more effective drug therapies is the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which prevents many compounds with therapeutic potential from reaching the central nervous system. Nanotechnology may provide a solution to this problem. Among the medical nanomaterials currently being studied, carbon dots (CDs) have attracted widespread attention because of their ability to cross the BBB, non-toxicity, and potential for drug/gene delivery.

Progress and challenges of graphene and its congeners for biomedical applications

Nanomaterials by virtue of their small size and enhanced surface area, present unique physicochemical properties that enjoy widespread applications in bioengineering, biomedicine, biotechnology, disease diagnosis, and therapy. In recent years, graphene and its derivatives have attracted a great deal of attention in various applications, including photovoltaics, electronics, energy storage, catalysis, sensing, and biotechnology owing to their exceptional structural, optical, thermal, mechanical, and electrical. Graphene is a two-dimensional sheet of sp2 hybridized carbon atoms of atomic thickness, which are arranged in a honeycomb crystal lattice structure. Graphene derivatives are graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO), which are highly oxidized and less oxidized forms of graphene, respectively. Another form of graphene is graphene quantum dots (GQDs), having a size of less than 20 nm. Contemporary graphene research focuses on using graphene nanomaterials for biomedical purposes as they have a large surface area for loading biomolecules and medicine and offer the potential for the conjugation of fluorescent dyes or quantum dots for bioimaging. The present review begins with the synthesis, purification, structure, and properties of graphene nanomaterials. Then, we focussed on the biomedical application of graphene nanomaterials with special emphasis on drug delivery, bioimaging, biosensing, tissue engineering, gene delivery, and chemotherapy. The implications of graphene nanomaterials on human health and the environment have also been summarized due to their exposure to their biomedical applications. This review is anticipated to offer useful existing understanding and inspire new concepts to advance secure and effective graphene nanomaterials-based biomedical devices.

Two-dimensional transition metal carbides and nitrides (MXenes) based biosensing and molecular imaging

As a "star material", 2D transition metal carbides and/or nitrides (MXenes) have tremendous potential applications in biosensor development and molecular imaging. MXenes have a lot of advantages due to their large specific surface, excellent electrical conductivity, adjustable band gap, and easy modification. MXenes that immobilized with DNA strands, proteins, enzymes, or other bioluminescent materials on the surface, have been used to measure small molecules with extraordinary sensitivity and remarkable limit of detection. This review provides an overview of most recent development in the synthesis, fundamental properties, biosensing, and molecular imaging applications of MXenes. We focused on molecular detection through MXene-based electrochemical properties their challenges and novel opportunities of MXenes in biological applications. This article will provide a guide for researchers who are interested in the application of MXenes biosensors.

Graphene quantum dots: A review on the effect of synthesis parameters and theranostic applications

The rising demand for early-stage diagnosis of diseases such as cancer, diabetes, neurodegenerative can be met with the development of materials offering high sensitivity and specificity. Graphene quantum dots (GQDs) have been investigated extensively for theranostic applications owing to their superior photostability and high aqueous dispersibility. These are attractive for a range of biomedical applications as their physicochemical and optoelectronic properties can be tuned precisely. However, many aspects of these properties remain to be explored. In the present review, we have discussed the effect of synthetic parameters upon their physicochemical characteristics relevant to bioimaging. We have highlighted the effect of particle properties upon sensing of biological molecules through 'turn-on' and 'turn-off' fluorescence and generation of electrochemical signals. After describing the effect of surface chemistry and solution pH on optical properties, an inclusive view on application of GQDs in drug delivery and radiation therapy has been given. Finally, a brief overview on their application in gene therapy has also been included.

Shedding Light on DNA-Based Nanoprobes for Live-Cell MicroRNA Imaging

DNA-based nanoprobes integrated with various imaging signals have been employed for fabricating versatile biosensor platforms for the study of intracellular biological process and biomarker detection. The nanoprobes developments also provide opportunities for endogenous microRNA (miRNA) in situ analysis. In this review, the authors are primarily interested in various DNA-based nanoprobes for miRNA biosensors and declare strategies to reveal how to customize the desired nanoplatforms. Initially, various delivery vehicles for nanoprobe architectures transmembrane transport are delineated, and their biosecurity and ability for resisting the complex cellular environment are evaluated. Then, the novel strategies for designing DNA sequences as target miRNA specific recognition and signal amplification modules for miRNA detection are presented. Afterward, recent advances in imaging technologies to accurately respond and produce significant signal output are summarized. Finally, the challenges and future directions in the field are discussed.

RNAi-based therapeutics and tumor targeted delivery in cancer

Over the past decade, non-coding RNA-based therapeutics have proven as a great potential for the development of targeted therapies for cancer and other diseases. The discovery of the critical function of microRNAs (miRNAs) has generated great excitement in developing miRNA-based therapies. The dysregulation of miRNAs contributes to the pathogenesis of various human diseases and cancers by modulating genes that are involved in critical cellular processes, including cell proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, angiogenesis, metastasis, drug resistance, and tumorigenesis. miRNA (miRNA mimic, anti-miRNA/antagomir) and small interfering RNA (siRNA) can inhibit the expression of any cancer-related genes/mRNAs with high specificity through RNA interference (RNAi), thus representing a remarkable therapeutic tool for targeted therapies and precision medicine. siRNA and miRNA-based therapies have entered clinical trials and recently three novel siRNA-based therapeutics were approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), indicating the beginning of a new era of targeted therapeutics. The successful clinical applications of miRNA and siRNA therapeutics rely on safe and effective nanodelivery strategies for targeting tumor cells or tumor microenvironment. For this purpose, promising nanodelivery/nanoparticle-based approaches have been developed using a variety of molecules for systemic administration and improved tumor targeted delivery with reduced side effects. In this review, we present an overview of RNAi-based therapeutics, the major pharmaceutical challenges, and the perspectives for the development of promising delivery systems for clinical translation. We also highlight the passive and active tumor targeting nanodelivery strategies and primarily focus on the current applications of nanoparticle-based delivery formulations for tumor targeted RNAi molecules and their recent advances in clinical trials in human cancers.

Amplified Fluorescence in Situ Hybridization by Small and Bright Dye-Loaded Polymeric Nanoparticles

Detection and imaging of RNA at the single-cell level is of utmost importance for fundamental research and clinical diagnostics. Current techniques of RNA analysis, including fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), are long, complex, and expensive. Here, we report a methodology of amplified FISH (AmpliFISH) that enables simpler and faster RNA imaging using small and ultrabright dye-loaded polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) functionalized with DNA. We found that the small size of NPs (below 20 nm) was essential for their access to the intracellular mRNA targets in fixed permeabilized cells. Moreover, proper selection of the polymer matrix of DNA-NPs minimized nonspecific intracellular interactions. Optimized DNA-NPs enabled sequence-specific imaging of different mRNA targets (survivin, actin, and polyA tails), using a simple 1 h staining protocol. Encapsulation of cyanine and rhodamine dyes with bulky counterions yielded green-, red-, and far-red-emitting NPs that were 2-100-fold brighter than corresponding quantum dots. These NPs enabled multiplexed detection of three mRNA targets simultaneously, showing distinctive mRNA expression profiles in three cancer cell lines. Image analysis confirmed the single-particle nature of the intracellular signal, suggesting single-molecule sensitivity of the method. AmpliFISH was found to be semiquantitative, correlating with RT-qPCR. In comparison with the commercial locked nucleic acid (LNA)-based FISH technique, AmpliFISH provides 8-200-fold stronger signal (dependent on the NP color) and requires only three steps vs ∼20 steps together with a much shorter time. Thus, combination of bright fluorescent polymeric NPs with FISH yields a fast and sensitive single-cell transcriptomic analysis method for RNA research and clinical diagnostics.

Synthesis, Applications, and Prospects of Graphene Quantum Dots: A Comprehensive Review

Graphene quantum dot (GQD) is one of the youngest superstars of the carbon family. Since its emergence in 2008, GQD has attracted a great deal of attention due to its unique optoelectrical properties. Non-zero bandgap, the ability to accommodate functional groups and dopants, excellent dispersibility, highly tunable properties, and biocompatibility are among the most important characteristics of GQDs. To date, GQDs have displayed significant momentum in numerous fields such as energy devices, catalysis, sensing, photodynamic and photothermal therapy, drug delivery, and bioimaging. As this field is rapidly evolving, there is a strong need to identify the emerging challenges of GQDs in recent advances, mainly because some novel applications and numerous innovations on the ease of synthesis of GQDs are not systematically reviewed in earlier studies. This feature article provides a comparative and balanced discussion of recent advances in synthesis, properties, and applications of GQDs. Besides, current challenges and future prospects of these emerging carbon-based nanomaterials are also highlighted. The outlook provided in this review points out that the future of GQD research is boundless, particularly if upcoming studies focus on the ease of purification and eco-friendly synthesis along with improving the photoluminescence quantum yield and production yield of GQDs.

Novel brain-targeted nanomicelles for anti-glioma therapy mediated by the ApoE-enriched protein corona in vivo

Background

The interactions between nanoparticles (NPs) and plasma proteins form a protein corona around NPs after entering the biological environment, which provides new biological properties to NPs and mediates their interactions with cells and biological barriers. Given the inevitable interactions, we regard nanoparticle‒protein interactions as a tool for designing protein corona-mediated drug delivery systems. Herein, we demonstrate the successful application of protein corona-mediated brain-targeted nanomicelles in the treatment of glioma, loading them with paclitaxel (PTX), and decorating them with amyloid β-protein (Aβ)-CN peptide (PTX/Aβ-CN-PMs). Aβ-CN peptide, like the Aβ_1–42 peptide, specifically binds to the lipid-binding domain of apolipoprotein E (ApoE) in vivo to form the ApoE-enriched protein corona surrounding Aβ-CN-PMs (ApoE/PTX/Aβ-CN-PMs). The receptor-binding domain of the ApoE then combines with low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLr) and LDLr-related protein 1 receptor (LRP1r) expressed in the blood–brain barrier and glioma, effectively mediating brain-targeted delivery.

Methods

PTX/Aβ-CN-PMs were prepared using a film hydration method with sonication, which was simple and feasible. The specific formation of the ApoE-enriched protein corona around nanoparticles was characterized by Western blotting analysis and LC–MS/MS. The in vitro physicochemical properties and in vivo anti-glioma effects of PTX/Aβ-CN-PMs were also well studied.

Results

The average size and zeta potential of PTX/Aβ-CN-PMs and ApoE/PTX/Aβ-CN-PMs were 103.1 nm, 172.3 nm, 7.23 mV, and 0.715 mV, respectively. PTX was efficiently loaded into PTX/Aβ-CN-PMs, and the PTX release from rhApoE/PTX/Aβ-CN-PMs exhibited a sustained-release pattern in vitro. The formation of the ApoE-enriched protein corona significantly improved the cellular uptake of Aβ-CN-PMs on C6 cells and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and enhanced permeability to the blood–brain tumor barrier in vitro. Meanwhile, PTX/Aβ-CN-PMs with ApoE-enriched protein corona had a greater ability to inhibit cell proliferation and induce cell apoptosis than taxol. Importantly, PTX/Aβ-CN-PMs exhibited better anti-glioma effects and tissue distribution profile with rapid accumulation in glioma tissues in vivo and prolonged median survival of glioma-bearing mice compared to those associated with PMs without the ApoE protein corona.

Conclusions

The designed PTX/Aβ-CN-PMs exhibited significantly enhanced anti-glioma efficacy. Importantly, this study provided a strategy for the rational design of a protein corona-based brain-targeted drug delivery system. More crucially, we utilized the unfavorable side of the protein corona and converted it into an advantage to achieve brain-targeted drug delivery.

Graphical Abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12951-021-01097-8.

Opportunities Offered by Graphene Nanoparticles for MicroRNAs Delivery for Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Treatment

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is characterized by the degeneration and death of motor neurons. This neurodegenerative disease leads to muscle atrophy, paralysis, and death due to respiratory failure. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding ribonucleic acids (RNAs) with a length of 19 to 25 nucleotides, participating in the regulation of gene expression. Different studies have demonstrated that miRNAs deregulation is critical for the onset of a considerable number of neurodegenerative diseases, including ALS. Some studies have underlined how miRNAs are deregulated in ALS patients and for this reason, design therapies are used to correct the aberrant expression of miRNAs. With this rationale, delivery systems can be designed to target specific miRNAs. Specifically, these systems can be derived from viral vectors (viral systems) or synthetic or natural materials, including exosomes, lipids, and polymers. Between many materials used for non-viral vectors production, the two-dimensional graphene and its derivatives represent a good alternative for efficiently delivering nucleic acids. The large surface-to-volume ratio and ability to penetrate cell membranes are among the advantages of graphene. This review focuses on the specific pathogenesis of miRNAs in ALS and on graphene delivery systems designed for gene delivery to create a primer for future studies in the field.

Carbon dots for cancer nanomedicine: a bright future

Cancer remains one of the main causes of death in the world. Early diagnosis and effective cancer therapies are required to treat this pathology. Traditional therapeutic approaches are limited by lack of specificity and systemic toxicity. In this scenario, nanomaterials could overcome many limitations of conventional approaches by reducing side effects, increasing tumor accumulation and improving the efficacy of drugs. In the past few decades, carbon nanomaterials (i.e., fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, and carbon dots) have attracted significant attention of researchers in various scientific fields including biomedicine due to their unique physical/chemical properties and biological compatibility and are among the most promising materials that have already changed and will keep changing human life. Recently, because of their functionalization and stability, carbon nanomaterials have been explored as a novel tool for the delivery of therapeutic cancer drugs. In this review, we present an overview of the development of carbon dot nanomaterials in the nanomedicine field by focusing on their synthesis, and structural and optical properties as well as their imaging, therapy and cargo delivery applications.

Functionalized Graphene Platforms for Anticancer Drug Delivery

Two-dimensional nanomaterials are emerging as promising candidates for a wide range of biomedical applications including tissue engineering, biosensing, pathogen incapacitation, wound healing, and gene and drug delivery. Graphene, due to its high surface area, photothermal property, high loading capacity, and efficient cellular uptake, is at the forefront of these materials and plays a key role in this multidisciplinary research field. Poor water dispersibility and low functionality of graphene, however, hamper its hybridization into new nanostructures for future nanomedicine. Functionalization of graphene, either by covalent or non-covalent methods, is the most useful strategy to improve its dispersion in water and functionality as well as processability into new materials and devices. In this review, recent advances in functionalization of graphene derivatives by different (macro)molecules for future biomedical applications are reported and explained. In particular, hydrophilic functionalization of graphene and graphene oxide (GO) to improve their water dispersibility and physicochemical properties is discussed. We have focused on the anticancer drug delivery of polyfunctional graphene sheets.

Ratiometric fluorescent detection and imaging of microRNA in living cells with manganese dioxide nanosheet-active DNAzyme

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play an important role in multiple biological processes and can be used as biomarkers for clinical disease diagnosis, so their detection is of great importance. Here, manganese dioxide (MnO₂) nanosheet acts as carrier to deliver DNAzyme probes into cells through endocytosis, where intracellular glutathione (GSH) reduces the MnO₂ nanosheet to manganese ions (Mn²⁺) and releases the probes. The generated Mn²⁺ can be further used as an effective cofactor to activate the DNAzyme probe, and cleave the DNA strand into two fragments. Then, the miRNA-155 in the cells can hybridize with the cleaved fragment to cause the fluorescence signal change of the probe. The proposed proportional fluorescent method has been applied to the imaging of miRNA-155 in HeLa cells and HepG2 cells with the estimated detection limit (LOD) as 1.6 × 10^-12 M. The new method can provide great help for cancer diagnosis and biological research related to miRNA.

Nanotechnology in emerging liquid biopsy applications

Liquid biopsy is considered as the most attractive alternative to traditional tissue biopsies. The major advantages of this approach lie in the non-invasive procedure, the rapidness of sample collection and the potential for early cancer diagnosis and real-time monitoring of the disease and the treatment response. Nanotechnology has dynamically emerged in a wide range of applications in the field of liquid biopsy. The benefits of using nanomaterials for biosensing include high sensitivity and detectability, simplicity in many cases, rapid analysis, the low cost of the analysis and the potential for portability and personalized medicine. The present paper reports on the nanomaterial-based methods and biosensors that have been developed for liquid biopsy applications. Most of the nanomaterials used exhibit great analytical performance; moreover, extremely low limits of detection have been achieved for all studied targets. This review will provide scientists with a comprehensive overview of all the nanomaterials and techniques that have been developed for liquid biopsy applications. A comparison of the developed methods in terms of detectability, dynamic range, time-length of the analysis and multiplicity, is also provided.

Functionalized graphene oxide as a vehicle for targeted drug delivery and bioimaging applications

Graphene oxide (GO) has attracted tremendous attention as a most promising nanomaterial among the carbon family since it emerged as a polynomial functional tool with rational applications in diverse fields such as biomedical engineering, electrocatalysis, biosensing, energy conversion, and storage devices. Despite having certain limitations due to its irreversible aggregation performance owing largely to the strong van der Waals interactions, efforts have been made to smartly engineer its surface chemistry for realistic multimodal applications. The use of such GO-based engineered devices has increased rapidly in the last few years, principally due to its excellent properties, such as huge surface area, honeycomb-like structure allowing vacant interstitial space to accommodate compounds, sp2 hybridized carbon, improved biocompatibility and cell surface penetration due to electronic interactions. Amongst multifaceted GO dynamics, in this review, attempts are made to discuss the advanced applications of GO or graphene-based materials (GBNs) in the biomedical field involving drug or therapeutic gene delivery, dual drug or drug-gene combination targeting, special delivery of drug cocktails to the brain, stimuli-responsive release of molecular payloads, and Janus-structured smart applications for polar-nonpolar combination drug loading followed by targeting together with smart bioimaging approaches. In addition, the advantages of duel-drug delivery systems are discussed in detail. We also discuss various electronic mechanisms, and detailed surface engineering to meet microcosmic criteria for its utilization, various novel implementations of engineered GO as mentioned above, together with discussions of its inevitable toxicity or disadvantages. We hope that the target audience, belonging to biomedical engineering, pharmaceutical or material science fields, may acquire relevant information from this review which may help them design future studies in this field.

A carbon-based nanocarrier for efficient gene delivery

Aim: Several types of nanocarriers, most of which show significant cytotoxicity, have been developed to overcome the problem of gene-delivery barriers. Biocompatibility, low toxicity and water solubility of carbon nanodots (CNDs) are major advantages that recommend them as delivery systems. Materials & methods: We present a simple method to produce positively charged CNDs. Ethanolamine, ethylenediamine and hydrogen peroxide were utilized to synthesize these CNDs. Results & conclusion: Our results indicated that delivery of the CND-siGFP complex led to significant switching-off of the fluorescence of the GFP-expressing A549 cell. Next, the A549 cells were transfected with siRNA against BiP, which is a pivotal protein in the chemotherapy resistance of cancer cells. The expression levels of BiP decreased remarkably.

Protein-Activatable Diarylethene Monomer as a Smart Trigger of Noninvasive Control Over Reversible Generation of Singlet Oxygen: A Facile, Switchable, Theranostic Strategy for Photodynamic-Immunotherapy

The development of activatable photosensitizers to allow for the reversible control of singlet oxygen (¹O₂) production for photodynamic therapy (PDT) faces great challenges. Fortunately, the flourishing field of supramolecular biotechnology provides more effective strategies for activatable PDT systems. Here, we developed a new reversible PDT on a switch that controls the ¹O₂ generation of self-assembled albumin nanotheranostics in vitro and in vivo. A new molecular design principle of aggregation-induced self-quenching photochromism and albumin on-photoswitching was demonstrated using a new asymmetric, synthetic diarylethene moiety DIA. The photosensitizer porphyrin and DIA were incorporated as building blocks in a glutaraldehyde-induced covalent albumin cross-linking nanoplatform, HSA-DIA-porphyrin nanoparticles (NPs). More importantly, the excellent photoswitching property of DIA enables the resultant nanoplatform to act as a facile, switchable strategy for photodynamic-immunotherapy.

Organic dots (O-dots) for theranostic applications: preparation and surface engineering

Organic dots is a term used to represent materials including graphene quantum dots and carbon quantum dots because they rely on the presence of other atoms (O, H, and N) for their photoluminescence or fluorescence properties. They generally have a small size (as low as 2.5 nm), and show good photostability under prolonged irradiation. The excitation and emission wavelengths of O-dots can be tailored according to their synthetic procedure, where although their quantum yield is quite low compared with organic dyes, this is partly compensated by their large absorption coefficients. A wide range of strategies have been used to modify the surface of O-dots for passivation, improving their solubility and biocompatibility, and allowing the attachment of targeting moieties and therapeutic cargos. Hybrid nanostructures based on O-dots have been used for theranostic applications, particularly for cancer imaging and therapy. This review covers the synthesis, physics, chemistry, and characterization of O-dots. Their applications cover the prevention of protein fibril formation, and both controlled and targeted drug and gene delivery. Multifunctional therapeutic and imaging platforms have been reported, which combine four or more separate modalities, frequently including photothermal or photodynamic therapy and imaging and drug release.

Cytotoxicity and Bioimaging Study for NHDF and HeLa Cell Lines by Using Graphene Quantum Pins

Herein, we report the synthesis of an interesting graphene quantum material called "graphene quantum pins (GQPs)". Morphological analysis revealed the interesting pin shape (width: ~10 nm, length: 50-100 nm) and spectral analysis elucidated the surface functional groups, structural features, energy levels, and photoluminescence properties (blue emission under 365 nm). The difference between the GQPs and graphene quantum dos (GQDs) isolated from the same reaction mixture as regards to their morphological, structural, and photoluminescence properties are also discussed along with the suggestion of a growth mechanism. Cytotoxicity and cellular responses including changes in biophysical and biomechanical properties were evaluated for possible biomedical applications of GQPs. The studies demonstrated the biocompatibility of GQPs even at a high concentration of 512 μg/mL. Our results suggest GQPs can be used as a potential bio-imaging agent with desired photoluminescence property and low cytotoxicity.

Carbon Nanohorns/Pt Nanoparticles/DNA Nanoplatform for Intracellular Zn2+ Imaging and Enhanced Cooperative Phototherapy of Cancer Cells

Superfluous zinc ion (Zn²⁺) in living cells has been identified as a potential tumor biomarker for early cancer diagnosis and cancer progression monitoring. In this paper, we developed a novel carbon nanohorns/Pt nanoparticles/DNA (CNHs/Pt NPs/DNA) nanoplatform based on the clamped hybridization chain reaction (c-HCR) process for intracellular Zn²⁺ imaging and enhanced cooperative phototherapy of cancer cells. Cross-shaped DNAzyme (c-DNAzyme), hairpin DNA1, hairpin DNA2, and aptamer DNA were adsorbed onto the surfaces of CNHs/Pt NPs, and the fluorescence of carboxytetramethyl-rhodamine was also quenched. After entering the living cells, the c-DNAzyme was cleaved to output trigger DNA in the existence of intracellular Zn²⁺ and initiate the c-HCR process for fluorescence amplification. Compared with the single HCR process triggered by a single DNAzyme, the c-HCR process could further improve the amplification efficiency and sensitivity. In addition, such a nanoprobe possesses a catalysis-enhanced photodynamic effect by Pt NP generation of oxygen in a tumor microenvironment and increases the photothermal effect by loading of Pt NPs on CNHs, indicating that this is a promising biological method for cancer diagnosis and cancer cell therapy.

Clitoria ternatea Mediated Synthesis of Graphene Quantum Dots for the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease

The main purpose of the present study was to synthesize graphene quantum dots (GQDs)from the flowers of Clitoria ternatea with the help of one-pot microwave-assisted green synthesis for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Further, the synthesized graphene quantum dots show a particle size of 10 nm ±1.3, a PDI of 0.354 ± 1.8, and a ζ potential of -46 ± 0.4, indicating the good stability of the quantum dots. With the help of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transfer electron microscopy (TEM) examination, the surface microscopic behavior of the synthesized quantum dots was determined. The presence of functional groups in the quantum dots was determined by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) study, the chemical state information on the sample was determined with the help of X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and the surface area of the dots was determined with the help of a surface area analyzer. With the help of a radial arm maze and water morris maze assay, the learning and memory capacity of the quantum dots was assessed, and the results show that the ctGQDs significantly decreased the transfer latency to reach the baited arm in 10.37 ± 1.65 s or to the hidden platform in 18.42 ± 0.99 s in 7 days. The synthesized quantum dots show more inhibition of the acetyl cholinesterase enzyme, i.e., 86.32 ± 1.52%, as compared to that of pure donepezil, i.e., 72.46 ± 2.21%. ctGQDs considerably increased the level of glutathione and protein and decreased the level of lipid peroxide and nitric oxide. The histopathological image of ctGQDs shows more preservation of small pyramidal cell and treats the disorganization of the cells. These results suggest that the quantum dots significantly crossed the blood-brain barrier since they were small in size and were effective in reducing Alzheimer-like symptoms in rodents, and thus, it can be concluded that Clitoria ternatea flowers can be used as an adjuvant in the treatment of Alzheimer's.

Biomedical applications of dendritic fibrous nanosilica (DFNS): recent progress and challenges

Dendritic fibrous nanosilica (DFNS), with multi-component and hierarchically complex structures, has recently been receiving significant attention in various fields of nano-biomedicine. DFNS is an emerging class of mesoporous nanoparticles that has attracted great interest due to unique structures such as open three-dimensional dendritic superstructures with large pore channels and highly accessible internal surface areas. This overview aims to study the application of DFNS towards biomedical investigations. This review is divided into four main sections. Sections 1–3 are related to the synthesis and characterization of DFNS. The biomedical potential of DFNS, such as cell therapy, gene therapy, immune therapy, drug delivery, imaging, photothermal therapy, bioanalysis, biocatalysis, and tissue engineering, is discussed based on advantages and limitations. Finally, the perspectives and challenges in terms of controlled synthesis and potential nano-biomedical applications towards future studies are discussed.

Dendritic fibrous nanosilica (DFNS) , with multi-component and hierarchically complex structures, has recently been receiving significant attention in various fields of nano-biomedicine.

Graphene and other 2D materials: a multidisciplinary analysis to uncover the hidden potential as cancer theranostics

Cancer represents one of the main causes of death in the world; hence the development of more specific approaches for its diagnosis and treatment is urgently needed in clinical practice. Here we aim at providing a comprehensive review on the use of 2-dimensional materials (2DMs) in cancer theranostics. In particular, we focus on graphene-related materials (GRMs), graphene hybrids, and graphdiyne (GDY), as well as other emerging 2DMs, such as MXene, tungsten disulfide (WS2), molybdenum disulfide (MoS2), hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN), black phosphorus (BP), silicene, antimonene (AM), germanene, biotite (black mica), metal organic frameworks (MOFs), and others. The results reported in the scientific literature in the last ten years (>200 papers) are dissected here with respect to the wide variety of combinations of imaging methodologies and therapeutic approaches, including drug/gene delivery, photothermal/photodynamic therapy, sonodynamic therapy, and immunotherapy. We provide a unique multidisciplinary approach in discussing the literature, which also includes a detailed section on the characterization methods used to analyze the material properties, highlighting the merits and limitations of the different approaches. The aim of this review is to show the strong potential of 2DMs for use as cancer theranostics, as well as to highlight issues that prevent the clinical translation of these materials. Overall, we hope to shed light on the hidden potential of the vast panorama of new and emerging 2DMs as clinical cancer theranostics.

Cancer-Targeting Nanoparticles for Combinatorial Nucleic Acid Delivery

Nucleic acids are a promising type of therapeutic for the treatment of a wide range of conditions, including cancer, but they also pose many delivery challenges. For efficient and safe delivery to cancer cells, nucleic acids must generally be packaged into a vehicle, such as a nanoparticle, that will allow them to be taken up by the target cells and then released in the appropriate cellular compartment to function. As with other types of therapeutics, delivery vehicles for nucleic acids must also be designed to avoid unwanted side effects; thus, the ability of such carriers to target their cargo to cancer cells is crucial. Classes of nucleic acids, hurdles that must be overcome for effective intracellular delivery, types of nonviral nanomaterials used as delivery vehicles, and the different strategies that can be employed to target nucleic acid delivery specifically to tumor cells are discussed. Additonally, nanoparticle designs that facilitate multiplexed delivery of combinations of nucleic acids are reviewed.

Nucleic-Acid Structures as Intracellular Probes for Live Cells

The chemical composition of cells at the molecular level determines their growth, differentiation, structure, and function. Probing this composition is powerful because it provides invaluable insight into chemical processes inside cells and in certain cases allows disease diagnosis based on molecular profiles. However, many techniques analyze fixed cells or lysates of bulk populations, in which information about dynamics and cellular heterogeneity is lost. Recently, nucleic-acid-based probes have emerged as a promising platform for the detection of a wide variety of intracellular analytes in live cells with single-cell resolution. Recent advances in this field are described and common strategies for probe design, types of targets that can be identified, current limitations, and future directions are discussed.

Facile Strategy To Enhance Specificity and Sensitivity of Molecular Beacons by an Aptamer-Functionalized Delivery Vector

To enhance the specificity and sensitivity of molecular beacons (MBs) in detecting mRNA in living tumor cells, we introduced an aptamer (AS1411) to the delivery system of MBs to form an aptamer-decorated nanoprobe (ANP), which was prepared through self-assembly between AS1411-conjugated carboxymethyl chitosan (ACMC) with protamine sulfate (PS)/CaCO₃/MB cores. Owing to the specific binding of AS1411 to nucleolin, which is overexpressed in tumor cell membranes and nuclei, an AS1411-decorated MB-delivery system leads to dramatically increased cell uptake of MBs for probing survivin mRNA and thus induces strong intracellular fluorescence emission in targeted tumorous cells and cell nuclei. Furthermore, we demonstrate that ANP can efficiently detect survivin mRNA in mitochondria. In other words, the effective delivery of MBs ensures the precise detection of mRNA distribution in diverse organelles. In addition, we evaluated the efficiency of ANP in probing tumor cells in simulated blood as well as in peripheral blood from a healthy donor and found that the nanoprobe can specifically deliver MBs to tumor cells and identify tumor cells in blood. The targeting delivery system we constructed holds promising applications in precise detection of subcellular distribution of mRNA in living tumor cells as well as in fluorescence-guided cancer detection in liquid biopsy technology. This study provides a facile strategy to effectively improve the specificity and sensitivity of conventional molecular beacons.

Dispersed graphene materials of biomedical interest and their toxicological consequences

Graphene is one-atom thick nanocarbon displaying a unique honeycomb structure and extensive conjugation. In addition to high surface area to mass ratio, it displays unique optical, thermal, electronic and mechanical properties. Atomic scale tunability of graphene has attracted immense research interest with a prospective utility in electronics, desalination, energy sectors, and beyond. Its intrinsic opto-thermal properties are appealing from the standpoint of multimodal drug delivery, imaging and biosensing applications. Hydrophobic basal plane of sheets can be efficiently loaded with aromatic molecules via non-specific forces. With intense biomedical interest, methods are evolving to produce defect-free and dispersion stable sheets. This review summarizes advancements in synthetic approaches and strategies of stabilizing graphene derivatives in aqueous medium. We have described the interaction of colloidal graphene with cellular and sub-cellular components, and subsequent physiological signaling. Finally, a systematic discussion is provided covering toxicological challenges and possible solutions on utilizing graphene formulations for high-end biomedical applications.

Hybrid carbon-based materials for gene delivery in cancer therapy

Accumulation at tumor tissue without any damage to healthy normal tissues is an ultimate goal in cancer therapy. Despite many efforts in the field of cancer therapy, this disease remains as the major reason of mortality all over the world. Gene therapy has introduced great opportunity to fight against cancer disease. It should be noted that still some obstacles limit clinical application of gene delivery approach, which have to be overcome for efficient transportation of therapeutic gene to the site of action. In this regard, carbon nanomaterials and their unique physical and chemical properties such as their capability of DNA protection have attracted much attention in the field of nanomedicine and non-viral carriers for therapeutic genes. Although, negligible solubility of carbon nanomaterials in biological environments has limited their biomedical application but their structural characteristics facilitate their chemical modifications thereby overcoming their solubility problem. Moreover, hybridization of modified carbon materials with different polymers provides more biocompatible and capable systems for gene delivery purposes. In the current review, we summarized hybrid carbon-based materials as non-viral carriers for gene delivery.

A review of applications of principles of quantum physics in oncology: do quantum physics principles have any role in oncology research and applications?

Background:

Research in the applications of the principles of quantum physics in oncology has progressed significantly over the past decades; and several research groups with professionals from diverse scientific background, including electrical engineers, mathematicians, biologists, atomic physicists, computer programmers, and biochemists, are working collaboratively in an unprecedented and pioneering economic, organisational and human effort searching for a wider and more effective, potentially definitive, understanding of the cancers. It is hypothesised that the principles of quantum physics could open new and broader understanding of the cancers and the development of new effective, targeted, accurate, personalised and possibly definitive cancer treatment.

Materials and methods:

This paper reports on a review of recent studies in the field of the applications of the principles of quantum physics in biology, chemistry, biochemistry and quantum physics in cancer research, including quantum physics principles and cancer, quantum modelling techniques, quantum dots and its applications in oncology, quantum cascade laser histopathology and quantum computing applications.

Conclusions:

The applications of the principles of quantum physics in oncology, chemistry and biology are providing new perspectives and greater insights into a long-studied disease, which could result in a greater understanding of the cancers and the potential for personalised and definitive treatment methods.

Improved Biocompatibility of Amino-Functionalized Graphene Oxide in Caenorhabditis elegans

Graphene oxide (GO) holds high promise for diagnostic and therapeutic applications in nanomedicine but reportedly displays immunotoxicity, underlining the need for developing functionalized GO with improved biocompatibility. This study describes adverse effects of GO and amino-functionalized GO (GONH₂ ) during Caenorhabditis elegans development and ageing upon acute or chronic exposure. Chronic GO treatment throughout the C. elegans development causes decreased fecundity and a reduction of animal size, while acute treatment does not lead to any measurable physiological decline. However, RNA-Sequencing data reveal that acute GO exposure induces innate immune gene expression. The p38 MAP kinase, PMK-1, which is a well-established master regulator of innate immunity, protects C. elegans from chronic GO toxicity, as pmk-1 mutants show reduced tissue-functionality and facultative vivipary. In a direct comparison, GONH₂ exposure does not cause detrimental effects in the wild type or in pmk-1 mutants, and the innate immune response is considerably less pronounced. This work establishes enhanced biocompatibility of amino-functionalized GO in a whole-organism, emphasizing its potential as a biomedical nanomaterial.

Carbon Dots for In Vivo Bioimaging and Theranostics

Carbon dots (CDs), a kind of carbon material discovered accidentally, exhibit unexpected advantages in fluorescence imaging/sensing such as photostability, biocompatibility, and low toxicity. For emerging theranostics, an interdiscipline created by integrating therapy and diagnostics, CDs are good candidates when they are combined with targeted chemo/gene/photodynamic/photothermal therapeutic moieties. Here, the development of CDs in nanomedicine is reviewed from their use as original imaging agents and/or drug carriers to multifunctional theranostic systems. Finally, the challenges and prospects of the next-generation of CD-based theranostics for clinical applications are also discussed.

Two dimensional carbon based nanocomposites as multimodal therapeutic and diagnostic platform: A biomedical and toxicological perspective

Graphene based nanocomposites have revolutionized cancer treatment, diagnosis and imaging owing to its good compatibility, elegant flexibility, high surface area, low mass density along with excellent combined additive effect of graphene with other nanomaterials. This review inculcates the type of graphene based nanocomposites and their fabrication techniques to improve its properties as photothermal and theranostic platform. With decades' efforts, many significant breakthroughs in the method of synthesis and characterization in addition to various functionalization options of graphene based nanocomposite have paved a solid foundation for their potential applications in the cancer therapy. This work intends to provide a thorough, up-to-date holistic discussion on correlation of breakthroughs with their biomedical applications and illustrate how to utilize these breakthroughs to address long-standing challenges in the clinical translation of nanomedicines. This review also emphasizes on graphene based nanocomposites based toxicity concerns pertaining to delivery platforms.

Multifunctional Fe3O4@Polydopamine@DNA-Fueled Molecular Machine for Magnetically Targeted Intracellular Zn2+ Imaging and Fluorescence/MRI Guided Photodynamic-Photothermal Therapy

For the precise treatment of tumors, it is necessary to develop a theranostic nanoplatform that has both diagnostic and therapeutic functions. In this article, we designed a new theranostic probe for fluorescence imaging of Zn²⁺ and fluorescence/MRI guided magnetically targeted photodynamic-photothermal therapy. The fluorescence imaging of Zn²⁺ was based on an endogenous ATP-driven DNA nanomachine that could perform repetitive stand displacement reaction. It modifies all units on a single PDA/Fe₃O₄ nanoparticle containing a hairpin-locked initiated strand activated by a target molecule in cells, a two-stranded fuel DNA triggered by ATP, and a two-stranded DNA track responding to an initiated strand and fuel DNA. After entering the cell, the intracellular target Zn²⁺ initiates the nanomachine via an autocatalytic cleavage reaction, and the machine programmatically and gradually runs on the assembled DNA track via fuel DNA driving and the intramolecular toehold-mediated stand displacement reaction. The Fe₃O₄ core first exhibits magnetic targeting, increasing the ability of nanoparticles to enter tumor cells at the tumor site. The Fe₃O₄ could also be employed as a powerful magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agent and guided therapy. Using 808 nm laser and 635 nm laser irradiation together at the tumor site, the PDA nanoshell produced an excellent photothermal effect and the TMPyP4 molecules entering the cell generated reactive oxygen species, followed by cell damage. A series of reliable experiments suggested that the Fe₃O₄@PDA@DNA nanoprobe showed superior fluorescence specificity, MRI, a remarkable photothermal/photodynamic therapy effect, and favorable biocompatibility. This theranostic nanoplatform offered a split-new insight into tumor fluorescence and MRI diagnosis as well as effective tumor therapy.

Graphene-Based Smart Platforms for Combined Cancer Therapy

The extensive research of graphene and its derivatives in biomedical applications during the past few years has witnessed its significance in the field of nanomedicine. Starting from simple drug delivery systems, the application of graphene and its derivatives has been extended to a versatile platform of multiple therapeutic modalities, including photothermal therapy, photodynamic therapy, magnetic hyperthermia therapy, and sonodynamic therapy. In addition to monotherapy, graphene-based materials are widely applied in combined therapies for enhanced anticancer activity and reduced side effects. In particular, graphene-based materials are often designed and fabricated as "smart" platforms for stimuli-responsive nanocarriers, whose therapeutic effects can be activated by the tumor microenvironment, such as acidic pH and elevated glutathione (termed as "endogenous stimuli"), or light, magnetic, or ultrasonic stimuli (termed as "exogenous stimuli"). Herein, the recent advances of smart graphene platforms for combined therapy applications are presented, starting with the principle for the design of graphene-based smart platforms in combined therapy applications. Next, recent advances of combined therapies contributed by graphene-based materials, including chemotherapy-based, photothermal-therapy-based, and ultrasound-therapy-based synergistic therapy, are outlined. In addition, current challenges and future prospects regarding this promising field are discussed.

Biomarkers-based Biosensing and Bioimaging with Graphene for Cancer Diagnosis

At the onset of cancer, specific biomarkers get elevated or modified in body fluids or tissues. Early diagnosis of these biomarkers can greatly improve the survival rate or facilitate effective treatment with different modalities. Potential nanomaterial-based biosensing and bioimaging are the main techniques in nanodiagnostics because of their ultra-high selectivity and sensitivity. Emerging graphene, including two dimensional (2D) graphene films, three dimensional (3D) graphene architectures and graphene hybrids (GHs) nanostructures, are attracting increasing interests in the field of biosensing and bioimaging. Due to their remarkable optical, electronic, and thermal properties; chemical and mechanical stability; large surface area; and good biocompatibility, graphene-based nanomaterials are applicable alternatives as versatile platforms to detect biomarkers at the early stage of cancer. Moreover, currently, extensive applications of graphene-based biosensing and bioimaging has resulted in promising prospects in cancer diagnosis. We also hope this review will provide critical insights to inspire more exciting researches to address the current remaining problems in this field.

Shedding light on gene therapy: Carbon dots for the minimally invasive image-guided delivery of plasmids and noncoding RNAs - A review

Recently, carbon dots (CDs) have attracted great attention due to their superior properties, such as biocompatibility, fluorescence, high quantum yield, and uniform distribution. These characteristics make CDs interesting for bioimaging, therapeutic delivery, optogenetics, and theranostics. Photoluminescence (PL) properties enable CDs to act as imaging-trackable gene nanocarriers, while cationic CDs with high transfection efficiency have been applied for plasmid DNA and siRNA delivery. In this review, we have highlighted the precursors, structure and properties of positively charged CDs to demonstrate the various applications of these materials for nucleic acid delivery. Additionally, the potential of CDs as trackable gene delivery systems has been discussed. Although there are several reports on cellular and animal approaches to investigating the potential clinical applications of these nanomaterials, further systematic multidisciplinary approaches are required to examine the pharmacokinetic and biodistribution patterns of CDs for potential clinical applications.