Analysis of Nanoporosity in Moisture Permeation Barrier Layers by Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy

Enhancement of the Sensing Performance of Devices based on Multistimuli-Responsive Hybrid Materials

Capturing environmental stimuli is an essential aspect of electronic skin applications in robotics and prosthetics. Sensors made of temperature- and humidity-responsive hydrogel and piezoelectric zinc oxide (ZnO) core-shell nanorods have shown the necessary sensitivity. This is achieved by using highly conformal and substrate independent deposition methods for the ZnO and the hydrogel, i.e., plasma enhanced atomic layer deposition (PEALD) and initiated chemical vapor deposition (iCVD). In this work, we demonstrate that the use of a multichamber reactor enables performing PEALD and iCVD, sequentially, without breaking the vacuum. The sequential deposition of uniform as well as conformal thin films responsive to force, temperature, and humidity improved the deposition time and quality significantly. Proper interlayer adhesion could be achieved via in situ interface activation, a procedure easily realizable in this unique multichamber reactor. Beyond the fabrication method, also the mechanical properties of the template used to embed the core-shell nanorods and the cross-linker density in the hydrogel were optimized following the results of finite element models. Finally, galvanostatic electrochemical impedance spectroscopy measurements showed how temperature and humidity stimuli have different effects on the device impedance and phase, and these differences can be the basis for stimuli recognition.

On the transformation of "zincone"-like into porous ZnO thin films from sub-saturated plasma enhanced atomic layer deposition

The synthesis of nanoporous ZnO thin films is achieved through annealing of zinc-alkoxide ("zincone"-like) layers obtained by plasma-enhanced atomic layer deposition (PE-ALD). The zincone-like layers are deposited through sub-saturated PE-ALD adopting diethylzinc and O₂ plasma with doses below self-limiting values. Nanoporous ZnO thin films were subsequently obtained by calcination of the zincone-like layers between 100-600 °C. Spectroscopic ellipsometry (SE) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) were adopted in situ during calcination to investigate the removal of carbon impurities, development of controlled porosity, and formation and growth of ZnO crystallites. The layers developed controlled nanoporosity in the range of 1-5%, with pore sizes between 0.27 and 2.00 nm as measured with ellipsometric porosimetry (EP), as a function of the plasma dose and post-annealing temperature. Moreover, the crystallinity and crystallite orientation could be tuned, ranging from a powder-like to a (100) preferential growth in the out-of-plane direction, as measured by synchrotron-radiation grazing incidence XRD. Calcination temperature ranges were identified in which pore formation and subsequent crystal growth occurred, giving insights in the manufacturing of nanoporous ZnO from Zn-based hybrid materials.

Development of ALD Coatings for Harsh Environment Applications

Atomic layer deposition (ALD) is a well-known technique for the fabrication of ultrathin and highly conformal barrier coatings which have extensively been used for the protection of electronic devices in open atmospheric conditions. Here, we extend the scope for the application of low-temperature-deposited plasma-enhanced ALD barrier coatings for the protection of devices in a variety of chemical environments. The chemical stability tests were conducted in 3.5% NaCl, sea water, HCl (pH 4), and H₂SO₄ (pH 4) solutions for ALD Al₂O₃, HfO₂, TiO₂, and ZrO₂, deposited at 100 °C on TiO₂-coated Au and ALD ZnO (photoactive)-coated Si substrates. Using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and photoluminescence (PL) study, various aspects of the barrier properties and performance of ALD films in harsh chemical environments were explored. We demonstrate that the combined approach involving EIS and PL provides unique insights into the suitability of ALD films as barriers in harsh environments involving ionic solutions. The observations from EIS and PL tests are supported by the X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis of ALD materials. Of the materials tested, ALD TiO₂ and ZrO₂ were found to be the most stable, chemically, in all four solutions, whereas TiO₂ was a better permeation barrier.

Mesoporous ZnO thin films obtained from molecular layer deposited “zincones”

The synthesis of MLD-derived mesoporous ZnO with 20% of porosity is demonstrated and studied by advanced in situ characterization techniques.

Characterization of nano-porosity in molecular layer deposited films

A correlation was found between the MLD process conditions, the open-porosity relative content, and the degradation of metalcone layers.

Control of the intrinsic microstructure in AP-PECVD synthesised amorphous silica thin films

The lattice porosity of flexible silica encapsulation films can be regulated by varying the specific energy during the AP-PECVD process.

Dynamic Ellipsometric Porosimetry Investigation of Permeation Pathways in Moisture Barrier Layers on Polymers

The quality assessment of moisture permeation barrier layers needs to include both water permeation pathways, namely through bulk nanoporosity and local macroscale defects. Ellipsometric porosimetry (EP) has been already demonstrated a valuable tool for the identification of nanoporosity in inorganic thin film barriers, but the intrinsic lack of sensitivity toward the detection of macroscale defects prevents the overall barrier characterization. In this contribution, dynamic EP measurements are reported and shown to be sensitive to the detection of macroscale defects in SiO2 layers on polyethylene naphthalate substrate. In detail, the infiltration of probe molecules, leading to changes in optical properties of the polymeric substrate, is followed in time and related to permeation through macroscale defects.

Minimizing Corrosion of Outdoor Metalworks Using Dispersed Chemically Stabilized Nanoclays in Polyvinylidene Fluoride Latex Coatings

Nanoclays are small enough to appear optically transparent, yet they have large surface-to-volume and high aspect ratios that can significantly inhibit water diffusion when incorporated into protective coatings. Clear coatings, which minimally affect the aesthetics of metalworks, are commonly applied to outdoor metalworks, such as sculptures, to prevent and slow corrosion. In recent years, waterborne clear coatings, rather than solvent-based clear coatings, are increasingly used in many applications to reduce the quantity of volatile organic components in the formulation, yet the performance of dry films produced from waterborne colloidal suspensions is generally poorer. In this work, we aim to improve the barrier properties of a highly weatherable waterborne acrylic/polyvinylidene fluoride emulsion by adding a synthetic nanoclay, Laponite, into the formulation. To improve clay-polymer compatibility, the clay was covalently modified using an acetoxy or perfluoroalkyl silane monomer that is reactive with the hydroxyl groups at the edges of the Laponite platelets. Cation exchange on the clay faces using phosphorylcholine was conducted to increase the stability in water and characterized by zeta potential. Resulting changes in barrier properties of the polymer nanocomposite films were characterized by gravimetry, colorimetry, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Surface ablation after accelerated artificial weathering was monitored by attenuated total internal reflectance Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopy and Raman microspectroscopy, thin film X-ray diffraction (TF-XRD) and gloss and thickness measurements. The composite films showed many improved properties: reduced water sensitivity and ultraviolet-induced polymer degradation, which increased the barrier properties and reduced the diffusion constants over both short- and long-term weathering studies compared with films without nanoclays. The diffusion constant measured for the highest performing composite film showed that the performance gap between relevant water- and solvent-borne coatings used to protect outdoor metals was narrowed by half.

Low-Temperature Plasma-Assisted Atomic Layer Deposition of Silicon Nitride Moisture Permeation Barrier Layers

Encapsulation of organic (opto-)electronic devices, such as organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs), photovoltaic cells, and field-effect transistors, is required to minimize device degradation induced by moisture and oxygen ingress. SiNx moisture permeation barriers have been fabricated using a very recently developed low-temperature plasma-assisted atomic layer deposition (ALD) approach, consisting of half-reactions of the substrate with the precursor SiH2(NH(t)Bu)2 and with N2-fed plasma. The deposited films have been characterized in terms of their refractive index and chemical composition by spectroscopic ellipsometry (SE), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). The SiNx thin-film refractive index ranges from 1.80 to 1.90 for films deposited at 80 °C up to 200 °C, respectively, and the C, O, and H impurity levels decrease when the deposition temperature increases. The relative open porosity content of the layers has been studied by means of multisolvent ellipsometric porosimetry (EP), adopting three solvents with different kinetic diameters: water (∼0.3 nm), ethanol (∼0.4 nm), and toluene (∼0.6 nm). Irrespective of the deposition temperature, and hence the impurity content in the SiNx films, no uptake of any adsorptive has been observed, pointing to the absence of open pores larger than 0.3 nm in diameter. Instead, multilayer development has been observed, leading to type II isotherms that, according to the IUPAC classification, are characteristic of nonporous layers. The calcium test has been performed in a climate chamber at 20 °C and 50% relative humidity to determine the intrinsic water vapor transmission rate (WVTR) of SiNx barriers deposited at 120 °C. Intrinsic WVTR values in the range of 10(-6) g/m2/day indicate excellent barrier properties for ALD SiNx layers as thin as 10 nm, competing with that of state-of-the-art plasma-enhanced chemical vapor-deposited SiNx layers of a few hundred nanometers in thickness.