Water-Soluble Fullerene Derivatives as Brain Medicine: Surface Chemistry Determines If They Are Neuroprotective and Antitumor

Delivery of cisplatin confined into pure and doped C240 fullerene: A molecular dynamics simulation study

In this research, we have investigated the delivery of cisplatin, as the anti-cancer drug molecule encapsulated into C240 fullerene with maximum equal number of water and carbon dioxide molecules (20H2O+20CO2) by continuously increasing the temperature from 310 to 450 K. We have determined the temperature at which the fullerene broke and the drug molecule released into the outer environment. To examine the effect of B, N, and Si doping of C240 fullerene on the bond break and release temperatures, we have also simulated the 20H2O+20CO2 mixture into 3 % doped (C233B7, C233N7, and C233Si7) and 20 % doped (C192B48, C192N48, and C192Si48) fullerenes at the same temperature range. Our results showed that there is not any bond break and consequently the drug release for the pure fullerene containing 20H2O+20CO2 mixture at any temperature. It is also observed that the N-doped fullerene shows less resistance to the breakdown, especially the C192N48 fullerene. Therefore, this N-doped C192N48 fullerene is more proper compound to use in the nano drug delivery investigations using fullerene. It is also shown that the doping fullerene is a proper way to easily destruct its structure to use in the drug delivery applications. It is also shown that the self-diffusion of the cisplatin molecule is higher in the C192N48 fullerene than the other systems. This result is in agreement with the other results and approves the C192N48 fullerene for the drug delivery purpose.

A novel fullerene-lysine derivative with noticeable ROS scavenging capabilities for improving type 2 diabetes mellitus

As some of the most promising candidates available, fullerene-derived bioactive agents have been explored as new drugs with high efficacy and safety for biomedical applications. In this study, a fullerene-lysine derivative (C60-Lys) was synthesized successfully and proved to be good at treating type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). C60-Lys could alleviate oxidative stress both in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced MIN6 cells and in STZ-induced T2DM mice subjected to a high-fat diet, and it significantly normalized glucose uptake and reduced blood glucose. In addition, C60-Lys can alleviate insulin resistance, hyperinsulinemia and lipid levels in T2DM mice. It was further confirmed that C60-Lys could alleviate oxidative stress by increasing the activities of antioxidant enzymes and stabilizing the mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) of pancreatic β-cells to reduce the overproduction of ROS. The results provide compelling evidence that C60-Lys possesses promising applications for T2DM treatment.

Capacity of fullerenols to modulate neurodegeneration induced by ferroptosis: Focus on multiple sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis is an inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS), characterized by oligodendrocyte loss and demyelination of axons leading to neurodegeneration and severe neurological disability. Despite the existing drugs that have immunomodulatory effects an adequate therapy that slow down or stop neuronal death has not yet been found. Oxidative stress accompanied by excessive release of iron into the extracellular space, mitochondrial damage and lipid peroxidation are important factors in the controlled cell death named ferroptosis, latterly recognized in MS. As the fullerenols exhibit potent antioxidant activity, recent results imply that they could have protective effects by suppressing ferroptosis. Based on the current knowledge we addressed the main mechanisms of the protective effects of fullerenols in the CNS in relation to ferroptosis. Inhibition of inflammation, iron overload and lipid peroxidation through the signal transduction mechanism of Nuclear Factor Erythroid 2-Related Factor 2 (NRF2), chelation of heavy metals and free radical scavenging using fullerenols are proposed as benefitial strategy preventing MS progression. Current review connects ferroptosis molecular targets and important factors of MS progression, with biomedical properties and mechanisms of fullerenols' actions, to propose new treatment strategies that could be addaptobale in other neurodegenerative diseases.

Organic Chimeras Based on Selenosugars, Steroids, and Fullerenes as Potential Inhibitors of the β-amyloid Peptide Aggregation

The aggregation of β-amyloid peptide (Aβ) is associated with neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). Several therapies aimed at reducing the aggregation of this peptide have emerged as potential strategies for the treatment of AD. This paper describes the design and preparation of new hybrid molecules based on steroids, selenosugars, and [60]fullerene as potential inhibitors of Aβ oligomerization. These moieties were selected based on their antioxidant properties and possible areas of interaction with the Aβ. Cyclopropanations between C60 and malonates bearing different steroid and selenosugar moieties using the Bingel-Hirsch protocol have enabled the synthesis of functionalized molecular hybrids. The obtained derivatives were characterized by physical and spectroscopic techniques. Theoretical calculations for all the selenium compounds were performed using the density functional theory DFT/B3LYP-D3(BJ)/6-311G(2d,p) predicting the most stable conformations of the synthesized derivatives. Relevant geometrical parameters were investigated to relate the stereochemical behavior and the spectroscopic data obtained. The affinity of the compounds for Aβ-peptide was estimated by molecular docking simulation, which predicted an increase in affinity and interactions for Aβ for the hybrids containing the C60 core. In addition, parameters such as lipophilicity, polar surface area, and dipole moment were calculated to predict their potential interaction with membrane cells.

Fullerenes in vivo. Toxicity and protective effects

The data available in the literature on the toxicity of fullerenes are numerous but contradictory. The ambiguity of research results hinders the transition from scientific research to real-world drug development. The ability of fullerenes to accumulate in some organs and tissues is interpreted in most cases as their disadvantage, while a number of studies have shown that there is no relationship between the accumulation of fullerenes and toxic effects. Moreover, fullerenes often exert potent protective effects. The pharmacokinetics and toxicity of fullerenes depend on the route of administration and are closely related to their functionalization, since pristine fullerenes are generally harmless. These factors, as well as the risk-benefit ratio, need to be considered when developing fullerene-based drugs. In this review, open-source data on in vivo toxicity, biodistribution, metabolism, and some protective properties of both native fullerene and a number of its derivatives are collected and analyzed. The problems and prospects for using fullerenes through various methods of delivery to the body, such as through the gastrointestinal tract, intravenous administration, intraperitoneal administration, dermal application or respiratory exposure are described.

Reaction mechanism with indano[60]fullerene bromide for evaporable fullerene derivatives

Indano[60]fullerene bromide was isolated as a key intermediate in the synthesis of indano[60]fullerene ketone, an evaporable fullerene derivative. Based on the identified reaction mechanism, aqueous hydrobromic acid was used to achieve reproducible and high-yielding reactions. A scalable one-pot reaction from aryl[60]fullerenyl dimers to indano[60]fullerene ketone was also demonstrated.

Buckyballs to fight pandemic: Water-soluble fullerene derivatives with pendant carboxylic groups emerge as a new family of promising SARS-CoV-2 inhibitors

Herein, we present the first experimental study of individual water-soluble fullerene derivatives proving their ability to inhibit SARS-CoV-2 in vitro. The initial screening allowed us to identify a few new compounds that have demonstrated pronounced antiviral activity with IC50 values as low as 390 nM and selectivity indexes reaching 214. Time-of-addition analysis and molecular docking results suggested that the viral protease and/or the spike protein are the most probable targets inhibited by the fullerene derivatives. Further rational design of fullerene derivatives might lead to the development of compounds with further enhanced antiviral activity and decreased toxicity.

Cytoprotective Effects and Intranuclear Localization of Sulfur-Containing Derivative of Buckminsterfullerene

BACKGROUND

There is a growing interest in exploring the biological characteristics of nanoparticles and exploring their potential applications. However, there is still a lack of research into the potential genotoxicity of fullerene derivatives and their impact on gene expression in human cells. In this study, we investigated the effects of a water-soluble fullerene derivative, C60[C6H4SCH2COOK]5H (F1), on human embryonic lung fibroblasts (HELF).

METHODS

3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) test was used to study the cytotoxicity of F1; reactive oxygen species (ROS) level was determined with 2,7-DCFH-DA; gene expression level was evaluated by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR); protein expression level was determined by flow cytofluorometry; fluorescence microscopy was used for visualization; Mann-Whitney statistical U-test was used for data processing. The differences were considered significant at p < 0.01.

RESULTS

F1 at a concentration of 0.3 mg/mL causes a short-term (up to 1 hour) increase in the number of double-strand breaks and oxidative DNA damage in HELF. Within 1 to 24 hours, F1 penetrates through the cell and nuclear membrane of HELF and localizes in the nucleus. In this case, the response of cells to DNA damage is activated: the functional activity of DNA repair genes, antioxidant and anti-apoptotic genes is increased within 24 hours. Due to the processes of activation of cell division and inhibition of apoptosis, an increase in the population of HELF cells in the presence of the fullerene derivative F1 is observed. F1 has a stabilizing effect on cell nuclei under the action of 1 Gy radiation.

CONCLUSIONS

An increase in antioxidant protection, activation of repair genes, anti-apoptotic genes, progression of the cell cycle, and a decrease in the level of oxidative damage, and DNA breaks in cells indicates the cytoprotective properties of F1.

Utilizing reactive oxygen species-scavenging nanoparticles for targeting oxidative stress in the treatment of ischemic stroke: A review

Ischemic stroke, which accounts for the majority of stroke cases, triggers a complex series of pathophysiological events, prominently characterized by acute oxidative stress due to excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Oxidative stress plays a crucial role in driving cell death and inflammation in ischemic stroke, making it a significant target for therapeutic intervention. Nanomedicine presents an innovative approach to directly mitigate oxidative damage. This review consolidates existing knowledge on the role of oxidative stress in ischemic stroke and assesses the potential of various ROS-scavenging nanoparticles (NPs) as therapeutic agents. We explore the properties and mechanisms of metal, metal-oxide, and carbon-based NPs, emphasizing their catalytic activity and biocompatibility in scavenging free radicals and facilitating the delivery of therapeutic agents across the blood-brain barrier. Additionally, we address the challenges such as cytotoxicity, immunogenicity, and biodistribution that need to be overcome to translate these nanotechnologies from bench to bedside. The future of NP-based therapies for ischemic stroke holds promise, with the potential to enhance outcomes through targeted modulation of oxidative stress.

Corannulene Amino Acid-Derived Water-Soluble Amphiphilic Buckybowls as Broad-Spectrum Membrane Targeting Antibacterial Agents

To date, the use of corannulene has been restricted in the area of material science, but its application in biomedical research has yet to be established due to its nonsolubility in an aqueous environment and synthetic infeasibility. Herein, we detail the development of a new family of highly curved π-conjugated corannulene-containing unnatural α-amino acid (CAA) derivatives to overcome this challenge. These CAAs have been extended as novel constituents for the synthesis of corannulene-containing water-soluble cationic peptides (CCPs), which display inhibitory activity against broad-spectrum pathogenic bacteria along with drug-resistant bacteria via a membrane-damaging mechanism. Importantly, several of the synthesized peptides were found to be appreciably nonhemolytic against hRBCs and noncytotoxic against mammalian 3T3 cells. In vivo efficacy studies of the potent and least cytotoxic peptide 6a demonstrated clearance of bacteria from the spleen, liver, lung, and blood of mice infected with S. aureus ATCC 25923.

Water-Soluble Lead Sulfide Nanoparticles: Direct Synthesis and Ligand Exchange Routes

Colloidal semiconductor nanoparticles (NPs) represent an emergent state of matter with unique properties, bridging bulk materials and molecular structures. Their distinct physical attributes, such as bandgap and photoluminescence, are intricately tied to their size and morphology. Ligand passivation plays a crucial role in shaping NPs and determining their physical properties. Ligand exchange (LE) offers a versatile approach to tailoring NP properties, often guided by Pearson's Hard-Soft Acid-Base theory. Lead sulfide (PbS), a semiconductor of considerable interest, exhibits size-dependent tunable bandgaps from the infrared to the visible range. Here, we present two methods for synthesizing water-soluble, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)-coated PbS NPs. The first involves direct synthesis in an aqueous solution while utilizing PVP as the surfactant for the formation of nano-cubes with a crystal coherence length of ~30 nm, while the second involves LE from octadecylamine-coated PbS truncated nano-cubes to PVP-coated PbS NPs with a crystal coherence length of ~15 nm. Multiple characterization techniques, including X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and thermal gravimetric analysis, confirmed the results of the synthesis and allowed us to monitor the ligand exchange process. Our findings demonstrate efficient and environmentally friendly approaches for synthesizing PVP-coated PbS NPs.

Molecular modelling of fullerene C60 functionalized by nitric oxide for use in biological environment

The unique potential of fullerene C60 for various biological applications has ignited significant interest. However, its inherent non-polarity poses a critical challenge for its effective integration within biological systems. This study delves into the intricate physicochemical characteristics of the innovative [C60 + NO] complex using density functional theory and time-dependent density functional theory. The computational analyses encompass molecular charge, surface electrostatic potential, and dipole moment evaluations. Impressively, the dipole moment of the [C60 + NO] complex significantly increases to 12.92 D. Meticulous surface analysis reveals a subtle interplay between molecular structures, indicating weak interactions. The analysis of the absorption spectrum unveils a noteworthy red-shift of 200 nm subsequent to complex formation. To elucidate the electron transfer mechanisms, we explore photo-induced electron transfer through CAM-B3LYP. This exploration elucidates intricate pathways governing electron transfer, with complementary insights gleaned from Marcus theory's outputs, especially the Gibbs free energy of electron transfer. Changes in the physicochemical properties of approaching C60 and NO molecules reveal interesting results compared to separate molecules. These findings resonate profoundly in the context of potential biological and pharmaceutical utilization. With implications for the biomedical area, the outcomes linked to the [C60 + NO] complex kindle optimism for pioneering biomedical applications.

C60 adduct with L-arginine as a promising nanomaterial for treating cerebral ischemic stroke

The work aimed to investigate the biocompatibility and biological activity of the water-soluble fullerene adduct C60-Arg. It was found that the material is haemocompatible, is not cyto- and genotoxic, possesses pronounced antioxidant activity. Additionally, this paper outlines the direction of application of water-soluble fullerene adducts in the creation of neuroprotectors. It has been suggested that a putative mechanism of the protective action of the C60-Arg adduct is associated with its antioxidant properties, the ability to penetrate the blood-brain barrier, and release nitrogen monoxide as a result of the catabolism of L-arginine residues, which promote vascular relaxation. The action of the C60-Arg adduct was compared with the action of such an antioxidant as Edaravone, which is approved in Japan for the treatment of ischemic and haemorrhagic strokes.

Water-soluble pristine C60 fullerenes attenuate isometric muscle force reduction in a rat acute inflammatory pain model

BACKGROUND

Being a scavenger of free radicals, C₆₀ fullerenes can influence on the physiological processes in skeletal muscles, however, the effect of such carbon nanoparticles on muscle contractility under acute muscle inflammation remains unclear. Thus, the aim of the study was to reveal the effect of the C₆₀ fullerene aqueous solution (C₆₀FAS) on the muscle contractile properties under acute inflammatory pain.

METHODS

To induce inflammation a 2.5% formalin solution was injected into the rat triceps surae (TS) muscle. High-frequency electrical stimulation has been used to induce tetanic muscle contraction. A linear motor under servo-control with embedded semi-conductor strain gauge resistors was used to measure the muscle tension.

RESULTS

In response to formalin administration, the strength of TS muscle contractions in untreated animals was recorded at 23% of control values, whereas the muscle tension in the C₆₀FAS-treated rats reached 48%. Thus, the treated muscle could generate 2-fold more muscle strength than the muscle in untreated rats.

CONCLUSIONS

The attenuation of muscle contraction force reduction caused by preliminary injection of C₆₀FAS is presumably associated with a decrease in the concentration of free radicals in the inflamed muscle tissue, which leads to a decrease in the intensity of nociceptive information transmission from the inflamed muscle to the CNS and thereby promotes the improvement of the functional state of the skeletal muscle.

Multiple therapeutic approaches of glioblastoma multiforme: From terminal to therapy

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is an aggressive brain cancer showing poor prognosis. Currently, treatment methods of GBM are limited with adverse outcomes and low survival rate. Thus, advancements in the treatment of GBM are of utmost importance, which can be achieved in recent decades. However, despite aggressive initial treatment, most patients develop recurrent diseases, and the overall survival rate of patients is impossible to achieve. Currently, researchers across the globe target signaling events along with tumor microenvironment (TME) through different drug molecules to inhibit the progression of GBM, but clinically they failed to demonstrate much success. Herein, we discuss the therapeutic targets and signaling cascades along with the role of the organoids model in GBM research. Moreover, we systematically review the traditional and emerging therapeutic strategies in GBM. In addition, we discuss the implications of nanotechnologies, AI, and combinatorial approach to enhance GBM therapeutics.

Electrostatic effects on water-soluble fullerene derivatives interaction with cytochrome c and cytochrome c oxidase

Water-soluble fullerene derivatives are good candidates for various biological applications such as anticancer or antimicrobial therapy, cytoprotection, enzyme inhibition, and many others. Their toxicity, both in tissue culture and in vivo, is a critical characteristic for the development and restriction of these applications. The effects of six water-soluble cationic and anionic polysubstituted fullerene derivatives on cytochrome c oxidase activity in rat brain mitochondria and the possibility of cytochrome c binding were studied. We found that the ability of these fullerene derivatives to bind with cytochrome c oxidase and charged molecules like eosin Y strongly depends on their electrostatic charge. As was shown, the cationic fullerene derivative inhibits cytochrome c oxidase that has the overall negative electrostatic potential completely, unlike anionic derivatives. Thus, it confirms the essential role of electrostatic interactions in the interaction of fullerene derivatives with the active site of enzymes. The results explore how cationic fullerene derivatives play a role in mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and cytotoxicity.

Biological Evaluation of Graphene Quantum Dots and Nitrogen-Doped Graphene Quantum Dots as Neurotrophic Agents

Over time, developments in nano-biomedical research have led to the creation of a number of systems to cure serious illnesses. Tandem use of nano-theragnostics such as diagnostic and therapeutic approaches tailored to the individual disease treatment is crucial for further development in the field of biomedical advancements. Graphene has garnered attention in the recent times as a potential nanomaterial for tissue engineering and regenerative medicines owing to its biocompatibility among the several other unique properties it possesses. The zero-dimensional graphene quantum dots (GQDs) and their nitrogen-doped variant, nitrogen-doped GQDs (N-GQDs), have good biocompatibility, and optical and physicochemical properties. GQDs have been extensively researched owing to several factors such as their size, surface charge, and interactions with other molecules found in biological media. This work briefly elucidates the potential of electroactive GQDs as well as N-GQDs as neurotrophic agents. In vitro investigations employing the N2A cell line were used to evaluate the effectiveness of GQDs and N-GQDs as neurotrophic agents, wherein basic investigations such as SRB assay and neurite outgrowth assay were performed. The results inferred from immunohistochemistry followed by confocal imaging studies as well as quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) studies corroborated those obtained from neurite outgrowth assay. We have also conducted a preliminary investigation of the pattern of gene expression for neurotrophic and gliotrophic growth factors using ex vivo neuronal and mixed glial cultures taken from the brains of postnatal day 2 mice pups. Overall, the studies indicated that GQDs and N-GQDs hold prospect as a framework for further development of neuroactive compounds for relevant central nervous system (CNS) purposes.

Potential Role of Carbon Nanomaterials in the Treatment of Malignant Brain Gliomas

Malignant gliomas are the most common primary brain tumors in adults up to an extent of 78% of all primary malignant brain tumors. However, total surgical resection is almost unachievable due to the considerable infiltrative ability of glial cells. The efficacy of current multimodal therapeutic strategies is, furthermore, limited by the lack of specific therapies against malignant cells, and, therefore, the prognosis of these in patients is still very unfavorable. The limitations of conventional therapies, which may result from inefficient delivery of the therapeutic or contrast agent to brain tumors, are major reasons for this unsolved clinical problem. The major problem in brain drug delivery is the presence of the blood-brain barrier, which limits the delivery of many chemotherapeutic agents. Nanoparticles, thanks to their chemical configuration, are able to go through the blood-brain barrier carrying drugs or genes targeted against gliomas. Carbon nanomaterials show distinct properties including electronic properties, a penetrating capability on the cell membrane, high drug-loading and pH-dependent therapeutic unloading capacities, thermal properties, a large surface area, and easy modification with molecules, which render them as suitable candidates for deliver drugs. In this review, we will focus on the potential effectiveness of the use of carbon nanomaterials in the treatment of malignant gliomas and discuss the current progress of in vitro and in vivo researches of carbon nanomaterials-based drug delivery to brain.

Hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effect of pentaamino acid fullerene C60 derivative in rats with metabolic disorder

Pentaamino acid fullerene C₆₀ derivative is a promising nanomaterial, which exhibited antihyperglycemic activity in high-fat diet and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. This study investigates the effect of pentaaminoacid C₆₀ derivative (PFD) in rats with metabolic disorders. Rats were assigned to 3 groups (of 10 rats each) as follows: Group 1 (normal control), group 2 included the protamine-sulfate-treated rats (the untreated group of animals with the model metabolic disorder); group 3 (Protamine sulfate + PFD) included the protamine-sulfate-treated model rats that received an intraperitoneal injection of PFD. Metabolic disorder in rats was initiated by protamine sulfate (PS) administration. The PS + PFD group was injected intraperitoneally with PFD solution (3 mg/kg). Protamine sulfate induces biochemical changes (hyperglycemia, hypercholesterolemia, and hypertriglyceridemia) in the blood and morphological lesions in rat liver and pancreas. The potassium salt of fullerenylpenta-N-dihydroxytyrosine in protamine sulfate-induced rats normalized blood glucose level and the serum lipid profile and improved hepatic function markers. Treatment with PFD restored pancreas islets and liver structure of protamine sulfate-induced rats compared to the untreated group. PFD is a promising compound for further study as a drug against metabolic disorders.

Water-Soluble Fullerene C60 Derivatives Are Effective Inhibitors of Influenza Virus Replication

The influenza virus genome features a very high mutation rate leading to the rapid selection of drug-resistant strains. Due to the emergence of drug-resistant strains, there is a need for the further development of new potent antivirals against influenza with a broad activity spectrum. Thus, the search for a novel, effective broad-spectrum antiviral agent is a top priority of medical science and healthcare systems. In this paper, derivatives based on fullerenes with broad virus inhibiting activities in vitro against a panel of influenza viruses were described. The antiviral properties of water-soluble fullerene derivatives were studied. It was demonstrated that the library of compounds based on fullerenes has cytoprotective activity. Maximum virus-inhibiting activity and minimum toxicity were found with compound 2, containing residues of salts of 2-amino-3-cyclopropylpropanoic acid (CC₅₀ > 300 µg/mL, IC₅₀ = 4.73 µg/mL, SI = 64). This study represents the initial stage in a study of fullerenes as anti-influenza drugs. The results of the study lead us conclude that five leading compounds (1-5) have pharmacological prospects.

Carbon-based nanostructures for cancer therapy and drug delivery applications

Synthesis, design, characterization, and application of carbon-based nanostructures (CBNSs) as drug carriers have attracted a great deal of interest over the past half of the century because of their promising chemical, thermal, physical, optical, mechanical, and electrical properties and their structural diversity. CBNSs are well-known in drug delivery applications due to their unique features such as easy cellular uptake, high drug loading ability, and thermal ablation. CBNSs, including carbon nanotubes, fullerenes, nanodiamond, graphene, and carbon quantum dots have been quite broadly examined for drug delivery systems. This review not only summarizes the most recent studies on developing carbon-based nanostructures for drug delivery (e.g. delivery carrier, cancer therapy and bioimaging), but also tries to deal with the challenges and opportunities resulting from the expansion in use of these materials in the realm of drug delivery. This class of nanomaterials requires advanced techniques for synthesis and surface modifications, yet a lot of critical questions such as their toxicity, biodistribution, pharmacokinetics, and fate of CBNSs in biological systems must be answered.

Self-Organization of Fullerene Derivatives in Solutions and Biological Cells Studied by Pulsed Field Gradient NMR

Fullerene derivatives are of great interest in various fields of science and technology. Fullerene derivatives are known to have pronounced anticancer and antiviral activity. They have antibacterial properties. Their properties are largely determined by association processes. Understanding the nature and properties of associates in solvents of various types will make it possible to make significant progress in understanding the mechanisms of aggregation of molecules of fullerene derivatives in solutions. Thus, this work, aimed at studying the size and stability of associates, is relevant and promising for further research. The NMR method in a pulsed field gradient was used, which makes it possible to directly study the translational mobility of molecules. The sizes of individual molecules and associates were calculated based on the Stokes–Einstein model. The lifetime of associates was also estimated. The interaction of water-soluble C₆₀ fullerene derivatives with erythrocytes was also evaluated. The values of self-diffusion coefficients and the lifetime of molecules of their compounds in cell membranes are obtained. It is concluded that the molecules of fullerene derivatives are fixed on the cell surface, and their forward movement is controlled by lateral diffusion.

Long-term maintenance of synaptic plasticity by Fullerenol Ameliorates lead-induced-impaired learning and memory in vivo

Fullerenol, a functional and water-soluble fullerene derivative, plays an important role in antioxidant, antitumor and antivirus, implying its enormous potential in biomedical applications. However, the in vivo performance of fullerenol remains largely unclear. We aimed to investigate the effect of fullerenol (i.p., 5 mg/kg) on the impaired hippocampus in a rat model of lead exposure. Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS) is a kind of newly developed soft-ionization mass spectrometry technology. In the present study, an innovative strategy for biological distribution analysis using MALDI-TOF-MS confirmed that fullerenol could across the blood-brain barrier and accumulate in the brain. Results from behavioral tests showed that a low dose of fullerenol could improve the impaired learning and memory induced by lead. Furthermore, electrophysiology examinations indicated that this potential repair effect of fullerenol was mainly due to the long-term changes in hippocampal synaptic plasticity, with enhancement lasting for more than 2-3 h. In addition, morphological observations and biochemistry analyses manifested that the long-term change in synaptic efficacy was accompanied by some structural alteration in synaptic connection. Our study demonstrates the therapeutic feature of fullerenol will be beneficial to the discovery and development as a new drug and lays a solid foundation for further biomedical applications of nanomedicines.

Inorganic Nanomaterials versus Polymer-Based Nanoparticles for Overcoming Neurodegeneration

Neurodegenerative disorders (NDs) affect a great number of people worldwide and also have a significant socio-economic impact on the aging population. In this context, nanomedicine applied to neurological disorders provides several biotechnological strategies and nanoformulations that improve life expectancy and the quality of life of patients affected by brain disorders. However, available treatments are limited by the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier (B-CSFB). In this regard, nanotechnological approaches could overcome these obstacles by updating various aspects (e.g., enhanced drug-delivery efficiency and bioavailability, BBB permeation and targeting the brain parenchyma, minimizing side effects). The aim of this review is to carefully explore the key elements of different neurological disorders and summarize the available nanomaterials applied for neurodegeneration therapy looking at several types of nanocarriers. Moreover, nutraceutical-loaded nanoparticles (NPs) and synthesized NPs using green approaches are also discussed underling the need to adopt eco-friendly procedures with a low environmental impact. The proven antioxidant properties related to several natural products provide an interesting starting point for developing efficient and green nanotools useful for neuroprotection.

Water-Soluble, Alanine-Modified Fullerene C60 Promotes the Proliferation and Neuronal Differentiation of Neural Stem Cells

As carbon-based nanomaterials, water-soluble C₆₀ derivatives have potential applications in various fields of biomedicine. In this study, a water-soluble fullerene C₆₀ derivative bearing alanine residues (Ala-C₆₀) was synthesized. The effects of Ala-C₆₀ on neural stem cells (NSCs) as seed cells were explored. Ala-C₆₀ can promote the proliferation of NSCs, induce NSCs to differentiate into neurons, and inhibit the migration of NSCs. Most importantly, the Ala-C₆₀ can significantly increase the cell viability of NSCs treated with hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂). The glutathioneperoxidase (GSH-Px) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities and glutathione (GSH) content increased significantly in NSCs treated even by 20 μM Ala-C₆₀. These findings strongly indicate that Ala-C₆₀ has high potential to be applied as a scaffold with NSCs for regeneration in nerve tissue engineering for diseases related to the nervous system.

Multiadducts of C60 Modulate Amyloid-β Fibrillation with Dual Acetylcholinesterase Inhibition and Antioxidant Properties: In Vitro and In Silico Studies

Background: Amyloid-β (Aβ) fibrils induce cognitive impairment and neuronal loss, leading to onset of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The inhibition of Aβ aggregation has been proposed as a therapeutic strategy for AD. Pristine C60 has shown the capacity to interact with the Aβ peptide and interfere with fibril formation but induces significant toxic effects in vitro and in vivo. Objective: To evaluate the potential of a series of C60 multiadducts to inhibit the Aβ fibrillization. Methods: A series of C60 multiadducts with four to six diethyl malonyl and their corresponding disodium-malonyl substituents were synthesized as individual isomers. Their potential on Aβ fibrillization inhibition was evaluated in vitro, in cellulo, and silico. Antioxidant activity, acetylcholinesterase inhibition capacity, and toxicity were assessed in vitro. Results: The multiadducts modulate Aβ fibrils formation without inducing cell toxicity, and that the number and polarity of the substituents play a significant role in the adducts efficacy to modulate Aβ aggregation. The molecular mechanism of fullerene-Aβ interaction and modulation was identified. Furthermore, the fullerene derivatives exhibited antioxidant capacity and reduction of acetylcholinesterase activity. Conclusion: Multiadducts of C60 are novel multi-target-directed ligand molecules that could hold considerable promise as the starting point for the development of AD therapies.

Modernistic and Emerging Developments of Nanotechnology in Glioblastoma-Targeted Theranostic Applications

Brain tumors such as glioblastoma are typically associated with an unstoppable cell proliferation with aggressive infiltration behavior and a shortened life span. Though treatment options such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy are available in combating glioblastoma, satisfactory therapeutics are still not available due to the high impermeability of the blood–brain barrier. To address these concerns, recently, multifarious theranostics based on nanotechnology have been developed, which can deal with diagnosis and therapy together. The multifunctional nanomaterials find a strategic path against glioblastoma by adjoining novel thermal and magnetic therapy approaches. Their convenient combination of specific features such as real-time tracking, in-depth tissue penetration, drug-loading capacity, and contrasting performance is of great demand in the clinical investigation of glioblastoma. The potential benefits of nanomaterials including specificity, surface tunability, biodegradability, non-toxicity, ligand functionalization, and near-infrared (NIR) and photoacoustic (PA) imaging are sufficient in developing effective theranostics. This review discusses the recent developments in nanotechnology toward the diagnosis, drug delivery, and therapy regarding glioblastoma.

Dodging blood brain barrier with "nano" warriors: Novel strategy against ischemic stroke

Ischemic stroke (IS) is one of the leading causes of death and disability resulting in inevitable burden globally. Ischemic injury initiates cascade of pathological events comprising energy dwindling, failure of ionic gradients, failure of blood brain barrier (BBB), vasogenic edema, calcium over accumulation, excitotoxicity, increased oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammation and eventually cell death. In spite of such complexity of the disease, the only treatment approved by US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA). This therapy overcome blood deficiency in the brain along with side effects of reperfusion which are responsible for considerable tissue injury. Therefore, there is urgent need of novel therapeutic perspectives that can protect the integrity of BBB and salvageable brain tissue. Advancement in nanomedicine is empowering new approaches that are potent to improve the understanding and treatment of the IS. Herein, we focus nanomaterial mediated drug delivery systems (DDSs) and their role to bypass and cross BBB especially via intranasal drug delivery. The various nanocarriers used in DDSs are also discussed. In a nut shell, the objective is to provide an overview of use of nanomedicine in the diagnosis and treatment of IS to facilitate the research from benchtop to bedside.

Fullerene derivatives with oligoethylene-glycol side chains: an investigation on the origin of their outstanding transport properties

For many years, fullerene derivatives have been the main n-type material of organic electronics and optoelectronics. Recently, fullerene derivatives functionalized with ethylene glycol (EG) side chains have been showing important properties such as enhanced dielectric constants, facile doping and enhanced self-assembly capabilities. Here, we have prepared field-effect transistors using a series of these fullerene derivatives equipped with EG side chains of different lengths. Transport data show the beneficial effect of increasing the EG side chain. In order to understand the material properties, full structural determination of these fullerene derivatives has been achieved by coupling the X-ray data with molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. The increase in transport properties is paired with the formation of extended layered structures, efficient molecular packing and an increase in the crystallite alignment. The layer-like structure is composed of conducting layers, containing of closely packed C60 balls approaching the inter-distance of 1 nm, that are separated by well-defined EG layers, where the EG chains are rather splayed with the chain direction almost perpendicular to the layer normal. Such a layered structure appears highly ordered and highly aligned with the C60 planes oriented parallel to the substrate in the thin film configuration. The order inside the thin film increases with the EG chain length, allowing the systems to achieve mobilities as high as 0.053 cm2 V-1 s-1. Our work elucidates the structure of these interesting semiconducting organic molecules and shows that the synergistic use of X-ray structural analysis and MD simulations is a powerful tool to identify the structure of thin organic films for optoelectronic applications.

Nanotheranostics for the Management of Hepatic Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury

Hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI), in which an insufficient oxygen supply followed by reperfusion leads to an inflammatory network and oxidative stress in disease tissue to cause cell death, always occurs after liver transplantations and sections. Although pharmacological treatments favorably prevent or protect the liver against experimental IRI, there have been few successes in clinical applications for patient benefits because of the incomprehension of complicated IRI-induced signaling events as well as short blood circulation time, poor solubility, and severe side reactions of most antioxidants and anti-inflammatory drugs. Nanomaterials can achieve targeted delivery and controllable release of contrast agents and therapeutic drugs in desired hepatic IRI regions for enhanced imaging sensitivity and improved therapeutic effects, emerging as novel alternative approaches for hepatic IRI diagnosis and therapy. In this review, the application of nanotechnology is summarized in the management of hepatic IRI, including nanomaterial-assisted hepatic IRI diagnosis, nanoparticulate systems-mediated remission of reactive oxygen species-induced tissue injury, and nanoparticle-based targeted drug delivery systems for the alleviation of IRI-related inflammation. The current challenges and future perspectives of these nanoenabled strategies for hepatic IRI treatment are also discussed.

Fullerene C60 Protects Against Intestinal Injury from Deoxynivalenol Toxicity by Improving Antioxidant Capacity

Oxidative stress is involved in a wide variety of pathologies, and fullerene has been shown to have an antioxidant ability. Mycotoxins exert toxic effects through induction of excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS). Here, we evaluated water-soluble fullerene C60 for its anti-mycotoxin and antioxidant effects in vitro and in vivo. Intestinal epithelial cells were cultured with fullerene during deoxynivalenol (DON) exposure. The results revealed that fullerene C60 significantly promoted cell viability, decreased apoptosis and necrotic cell number, and significantly reduced intracellular ROS levels during DON exposure (p < 0.05). To investigate the role of fullerene in antioxidant capacity in vivo further, 40 three-week-old male C57BL/6 mice were randomly divided into four groups. There were no significant differences between the control and fullerene groups (p > 0.05). In mice exposed to DON, supplementation with fullerene C60 significantly improved growth performance, and enhanced the total antioxidant status and the activities of SOD and GPX in the intestine and liver (p < 0.05). In addition, fullerene C60 supplementation improved intestinal morphology, as indicated by a higher villus height and tight junction protein expression (p < 0.05). Furthermore, fullerene supplementation decreased serum concentrations of inflammatory cytokine and lipopolysaccharide (LPS; a penetrability marker) compared to the DON-challenged group (p < 0.05). The current study suggests that fullerene C60 improves intestinal antioxidant status against DON-induced oxidative stress in vitro and in vivo.

Molecular and Ionic Diffusion in Ion Exchange Membranes and Biological Systems (Cells and Proteins) Studied by NMR

The results of NMR, and especially pulsed field gradient NMR (PFG NMR) investigations, are summarized. Pulsed field gradient NMR technique makes it possible to investigate directly the partial self-diffusion processes in spatial scales from tenth micron to millimeters. Modern NMR spectrometer diffusive units enable to measure self-diffusion coefficients from 10-13 m2/s to 10-8 m2/s in different materials on 1 H, 2 H, 7 Li, 13 C, 19 F, 23 Na, 31 P, 133 Cs nuclei. PFG NMR became the method of choice for reveals of transport mechanism in polymeric electrolytes for lithium batteries and fuel cells. Second wide field of application this technique is the exchange processes and lateral diffusion in biological cells as well as molecular association of proteins. In this case a permeability, cell size, and associate lifetime could be estimated. The authors have presented the review of their research carried out in Karpov Institute of Physical Chemistry, Moscow, Russia; Institute of Problems of Chemical Physics RAS, Chernogolovka, Russia; Kazan Federal University, Kazan, Russia; Korea University, Seoul, South Korea; Yokohama National University, Yokohama, Japan. The results of water molecule and Li+, Na+, Cs+ cation self-diffusion in Nafion membranes and membranes based on sulfonated polystyrene, water (and water soluble) fullerene derivative permeability in RBC, casein molecule association have being discussed.

Water-soluble fullerene-based nanostructures with promising antiviral and myogenic activity

Here we report a straightforward method for the synthesis of a water-soluble C60 fullerene derivative decorated with five residues of phosphonic acid. Self-assembly of the synthesized compound in aqueous solution leads to the formation of nanostructures with unprecedented myogenic and antiviral activity.

Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Glioblastoma and Zebrafish Models for the Discovery of New Treatments

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common of all brain malignant tumors; it displays a median survival of 14.6 months with current complete standard treatment. High heterogeneity, aggressive and invasive behavior, the impossibility of completing tumor resection, limitations for drug administration and therapeutic resistance to current treatments are the main problems presented by this pathology. In recent years, our knowledge of GBM physiopathology has advanced significantly, generating relevant information on the cellular heterogeneity of GBM tumors, including cancer and immune cells such as macrophages/microglia, genetic, epigenetic and metabolic alterations, comprising changes in miRNA expression. In this scenario, the zebrafish has arisen as a promising animal model to progress further due to its unique characteristics, such as transparency, ease of genetic manipulation, ethical and economic advantages and also conservation of the major brain regions and blood-brain-barrier (BBB) which are similar to a human structure. A few papers described in this review, using genetic and xenotransplantation zebrafish models have been used to study GBM as well as to test the anti-tumoral efficacy of new drugs, their ability to interact with target cells, modulate the tumor microenvironment, cross the BBB and/or their toxicity. Prospective studies following these lines of research may lead to a better diagnosis, prognosis and treatment of patients with GBM.

Cellular Uptake, Organelle Enrichment, and In Vitro Antioxidation of Fullerene Derivatives, Mediated by Surface Charge

Hydrophilic fullerene derivatives get notable performance in various biological applications, especially in cancer therapy and antioxidation. The biological behaviors of functional fullerenes are much dependent on their surface physicochemical properties. The excellent reactive oxygen species-scavenging capabilities of functional fullerenes promote their outstanding performances in inhibiting pathological symptoms associated with oxidative stress, including neurodegenerative diseases, cardiovascular diseases, acute and chronic kidney disease, and diabetes. Herein, fullerene derivatives with reversed surface charges in aqueous solutions are prepared: cationic C₆₀-EDA and anionic C₆₀-(EDA-EA). Under the driving force of membrane potential (negative inside) in the cell and mitochondria, C₆₀-EDA is much rapidly taken in by cells and transported into mitochondria compared with C₆₀-(EDA-EA) that is enriched in lysosomes. With high cellular uptake and mitochondrial enrichment, C₆₀-EDA exhibits stronger antioxidation capabilities in vitro than C₆₀-(EDA-EA), indicating its better performance in the therapy of oxidation-induced diseases. It is revealed that the cellular uptake rate, subcellular location, and intracellular antioxidation behavior of fullerene derivatives are primarily mediated by their surface charges, providing new strategies for the design of fullerene drugs and their biological applications.

Fullerene translocation through peroxidized lipid membranes

Recent cytotoxicity research suggests that fullerenes can enter the cell and cross the blood-brain barrier. However, the underlying toxicity mechanism behind the penetration of fullerenes through biological membranes is still not well understood. Here we perform coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations to investigate the interactions of fullerenes and their polar derivatives (Janus) with model regular and peroxidized bilayers. We show that the translocation of fullerenes and their residence time in bulk water vary depending on the bilayer's peroxidation degree and fullerene polarity. The distribution of fullerenes inside the bilayer is mainly determined by the peroxidation degree and the saturation level of lipid acyl chains. The transport of pristine fullerenes through bilayers occurs at nano timescale while the complete diffusion may not be achieved for Janus fullerenes in micro timescale. As for the toxic response of fullerenes in terms of membrane damage, no mechanical disruption of model bilayers is observed throughout the studied simulation times.

Synthesis and characterization of gadolinium-decorated [60]fullerene for tumor imaging and radiation sensitization

PURPOSE

The excellent contrast of high atomic number (Z) elements compared to soft tissues has advanced their use as contrast agents for computed tomographic imaging and as potential radiation sensitizers. We evaluated whether gadolinium (Gd) could serve as such a theranostic agent for high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) due to its paramagnetic properties and radiosensitization due to its high Z.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

To improve the relaxivity of Gd, we coupled it to [60]fullerene, an elemental carbon allotropic nanoparticle that seamlessly traverses physiological barriers . By adding serinol, an aliphatic alcohol derived from amino acid serine, we turned [60]fullerene, which is otherwise insoluble in water, into a highly water-soluble derivative and decorated it externally with a payload of chelated gadolinium ions.

RESULTS

When [60]fullerene was functionalized in this manner with two gadolinium ions (Gd2C60), it displayed considerably higher T1 relaxivity at 4.7 T than the commercially used MRI contrast agent, Magnevist, (18.2 mM-1s-1 vs. 4.7 mM-1s-1). Attempts to increase this even further via decoration of [60]fullerene with 12 gadolinium ions was unsuccessful due to a poor water solubility. However, the current formulation of Gd2C60 did not result in any appreciable radiosensitization.

CONCLUSION

Our results show a successful generation of a novel contrast agent via decoration of fullerene with two chelated Gd ions. Though this formulation was not successful in generating radiosensitization, other chemical modifications can be further explored to increase radiosensitization potential.

Identification of potential descriptors of water-soluble fullerene derivatives responsible for antitumor effects on lung cancer cells via QSAR analysis

Water-soluble fullerene derivatives are actively investigated as potential drugs for cancer treatment due to their favorable membranotropic properties. Herein, cytotoxic effects of twenty fullerene derivatives with different solubilizing addends were evaluated in three different types of non-small-cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC). The potential structural descriptors of the solubilizing addends related to the inhibitory activities on each type of lung cancer cell were investigated by the quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) approach. The determination coefficient r2 for the recommended QSAR model were 0.9325, 0.8404, and 0.9011 for A549, H460, and H1299 cell lines, respectively. The results revealed that the chemical features of the fullerene-based compounds including aromatic bonds, sulfur-containing aromatic rings, and oxygen atoms are favored properties and promote the inhibitory effects on H460 and H1299 cells. Particularly, thiophene moiety is the key functional group, which was positively correlated with strong inhibitory effects on the three types of lung cancer cells. The useful information obtained from our regression models may lead to the design of more efficient inhibitors of the three types of NSCLC.

Nanomaterial based drug delivery systems for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases

With an aging population that has been increasing in recent years, the need for the development of therapeutic approaches for treatment of neurodegenerative disorders (ND) has increased. ND, which are characterized by the progressive loss of the structure or function of neurons, are often associated with neuronal death. In spite of screening numerous drugs, currently there is no specific treatment that can cure these diseases or slow down their progression. Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), frontotemporal dementia, Huntington's disease, and prion diseases belong to ND which affect enormous numbers of people globally. There are some main possible reasons for failure in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as limitations introduced by the Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB), the Blood-Cerebrospinal Fluid Barrier (BCFB) and P-glycoproteins. Current advances in nanotechnology present opportunities to overcome the mentioned limitations by using nanotechnology and designing nanomaterials improving the delivery of active drug candidates. Some of the basic and developing strategies to overcome drug delivery impediments are the local delivery of drugs, receptor-mediated transcytosis, physicochemical disruption of the BBB, cell-penetrating peptides and magnetic disruption. Recently, the application of nanoparticles has been developed to improve the efficiency of drug delivery. Nanoengineered particles as nanodrugs possess the capacity to cross the BBB and also show decreased invasiveness. Examples include inorganic, magnetic, polymeric and carbonic nanoparticles that have been developed to improve drug delivery efficiency. Despite numerous papers published in this filed, there are some unsolved issues that need to be addressed for successful treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. These are discussed herein.

Carbon nanostructures: The drug and the delivery system for brain disorders

Neurodegenerative disorders and brain tumors are major pathological conditions affecting the brain. The delivery of therapeutic agents into the brain is not as easy as to other organs or systems. The presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) makes the drug delivery into the brain more complicated and challenging. Many techniques have been developed to overcome the difficulties with BBB and to achieve brain-targeted drug delivery. Incorporation of the drugs into nanocarriers capable to penetrate BBB is a simple technique. Different nanocarriers have been developed including polymeric nanoparticles, carbon nanoparticles, lipid-based nanoparticles, etc. Carbon nanostructures could make a superior position among them, because of their good biocompatibility and easy penetration of BBB. Carbon-family nanomaterials consist of different carbon-based structures including zero-dimensional fullerene, one-dimensional carbon nanotube, two-dimensional graphene, and some other related structures like carbon dots and nanodiamonds. They can be used as efficient carriers for drug delivery into the brain. Apart from the drug delivery applications, they can also be used as a central nervous system (CNS) therapeutic agent; some of the carbon nanostructures have neuroregenerative activity. Their influence on neuronal growth and anti-amyloid action is also interesting. This review focuses on different carbon nanostructures for brain-targeted drug delivery and their CNS activities. As a carrier and CNS therapeutic agent, carbon nanostructures can revolutionize the treatment of brain disorders.