Scalable, Large-Area Printing of Pore-Array Electrodes for Ultrahigh Power Electrochemical Energy Storage

Zinc Ion Hybrid Capacitors: Four Essential Parameters Determining Device Energy Density

Zinc ion hybrid capacitors (ZIHCs) with Zn metal faradic and carbon capacitive electrodes have potential applications in grid-scale energy storage systems and wearable devices. However, the high specific energy density reported in many recent studies is based on the mass of active carbon materials alone, with deficient device energy density. This perspective article discusses how four crucial parameters influence the device energy density of ZIHCs, including areal mass loading (mc) and specific capacity (Qg,c) of active carbon materials in cathodes, negative-to-positive electrode capacity ratio (N/P), and electrolyte-to-active carbon materials mass ratio (E/C). Using a representative device model, how the device energy density varies when these four parameters change is shown. Detailed analysis indicates that specific parameter windows with the four parameters within narrow ranges (e.g., mc = 10-20 mg cm-2, Qg,c > 100 mAh g-1, N/P < 20, and E/C < 5) need to be achieved simultaneously to deliver application-relevant energy density (e.g., >30 Wh kg-1) in ZIHCs. It is hoped that these findings assist in objectively evaluating reported performance data and identifying essential issues for future research development to realize practical applications.

An Affordable Dual Purpose Spray Setup for Lithium-Ion Batteries Thin Film Electrode Deposition

This work presents a versatile and cost-effective spray setup that integrates both compressed air spray and electrospray techniques, specifically designed for small-scale laboratory use. This setup provides researchers with an accessible tool to explore spray methods for growing battery electrodes. While these techniques hold significant industrial promise, affordable and simple methods for their use in research settings have been limited. To address this, the setup includes custom control software and detailed information on costs and materials, offering an easy-to-implement solution. The system was tested with three samples per technique, using identical settings, to evaluate the repeatability of each method and gain insights into the uniformity and structure of the resulting films. The structural and morphological characteristics of the samples were analyzed using X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy. The air-spray samples showed greater consistency and repeatability, whereas the electrospray samples exhibited better deposition results in terms of material coverage and higher crystallinity films. Cracking was observed in the air-spray samples, which was related to thermal stress, and both techniques exhibited solvent evaporation issues. The issues encountered with the setup and samples are summarized, along with possible solutions and the next steps for future upgrades and research.

Multi-layering of carbon conductivity enhancers for boosting rapid recharging performance of high mass loading lithium ion battery electrodes

The ability of lithium ion batteries (LIBs) to provide rapid charging characteristics while retaining a substantial energy storage capacity is of paramount significance for their applicability in portable smart electronic devices. In this research, an effective approach to enhance re-charging rates of LIB cells was developed through incorporating carbon nanotube (CNT) conductivity boosters strategically into Li4Ti5O12 (LTO) electrodes. A layer-by-layer spray coating was exploited to manufacture multi-layer architectures that comprise sequential, discrete electrode layers of CNT-rich LTO and CNT-free LTO, aiming at promoting charge transfer kinetics of high mass loading electrodes. Initially, the optimal proportion of a CNT-rich layer and its best location within multi-layer electrode structures were investigated in half-cell configurations. The best performing multi-layer was then paired with a spray-coated LiFePO4 (LFP) positive electrode in full-cell LIBs, offering attractive power performance of ∼ 1500 W/kg that outperformed conventional LTO || LFP combinations.

Spray fabrication of additive-free electrodes for advanced Lithium-Ion storage technologies

Polymer binders and carbon conductivity enhancers are inevitably required to make improvements in structural durability and electrochemical performance of lithium-ion battery (LIB) electrodes, although these additive constituents incur weight and volume penalties on the overall battery capacity. Here, additive-free electrode architectures were successfully fabricated over 20 × 20 cm2 electrode areas using a layer-by-layer spray coating approach, with the ultimate goal to boost gravimetric/volumetric electrode capacity and to reduce the total cost of LIB cells. Initially, the binder fraction of spray-coated Li4Ti5O12 (LTO) electrodes was reduced progressively, from 40 to 0 wt%. The electrochemical behavior of electrodes was then re-optimized as a proportion of conductivity enhancers within the binder-free electrode decreased to zero. Further, the otherwise identical spray coating process was applied to manufacture LiFePO4 (LFP) positive electrodes, leading to all-additive-free full-cell LIB configurations with attractive energy density of ∼310 Wh/kg and power performance of ∼1500 W/kg.

Sequential Deposition of Integrated Cathode-Inorganic Separator-Anode Multilayers for High Performance Li-Ion Batteries

A porous, spray-deposited Al₂O₃-based separator was developed to enable the direct deposition of an electrode/separator/electrode Li-ion battery full cell assembly in a single operation. The optimized sprayed separator consisted of 50 nm Al₂O₃ particles, 1 wt % poly(acrylic acid), and 5 wt % styrene-butadiene rubber, deposited from an 80:20 vol % suspension of water and isopropanol. Separators between 5 and 22 μm thick had consistent and similar porosity of ∼58%, excellent wettability, thermal stability to at least 180 °C, adequate electrochemical stability and high effective ionic conductivity of ∼1 mS cm^-1 at room temperature in an EC/DMC electrolyte, roughly double that of a conventional polypropylene separator. A sequentially deposited three-layer LiFePO₄/Al₂O₃/Li₄Ti₅O₁₂ full cell, the first of its kind, showed similar rate performance to an identical cell with a conventional polypropylene separator, with a capacity of ∼50 mAh g^-1 at 30 C. However, after cycling at 2 C for 400 cycles, Al₂O₃ separator full cells retained 96.3% capacity, significantly more than conventional full cells with a capacity of 79.2% remaining.

Design of Scalable, Next-Generation Thick Electrodes: Opportunities and Challenges

Lithium-ion battery electrodes are on course to benefit from current research in structure re-engineering to allow for the implementation of thicker electrodes. Increasing the thickness of a battery electrode enables significant improvements in gravimetric energy density while simultaneously reducing manufacturing costs. Both metrics are critical if the transition to sustainable transport systems is to be fully realized commercially. However, significant barriers exist that prevent the use of such microstructures: performance issues, manufacturing challenges, and scalability all remain open areas of research. In this Perspective, we discuss the challenges in adapting current manufacturing processes for thick electrodes and the opportunities that pore engineering presents in order to design thicker and better electrodes while simultaneously considering long-term performance and scalability.

Opportunities for the State-of-the-Art Production of LIB Electrodes—A Review

A sustainable shift from internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles to electric vehicles (EVs) is essential to achieve a considerable reduction in emissions. The production of Li-ion batteries (LIBs) used in EVs is an energy-intensive and costly process. It can also lead to significant embedded emissions depending on the source of energy used. In fact, about 39% of the energy consumption in LIB production is associated with drying processes, where the electrode drying step accounts for about a half. Despite the enormous energy consumption and costs originating from drying processes, they are seldomly researched in the battery industry. Establishing knowledge within the LIB industry regarding state-of-the-art drying techniques and solvent evaporation mechanisms is vital for optimising process conditions, detecting alternative solvent systems, and discovering novel techniques. This review aims to give a summary of the state-of-the-art LIB processing techniques. An in-depth understanding of the influential factors for each manufacturing step of LIBs is then established, emphasising the electrode structure and electrochemical performance. Special attention is dedicated to the convection drying step in conventional water and N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP)-based electrode manufacturing. Solvent omission in dry electrode processing substantially lowers the energy demand and allows for a thick, mechanically stable electrode coating. Small changes in the electrode manufacturing route may have an immense impact on the final battery performance. Electrodes used for research and development often have a different production route and techniques compared to those processed in industry. The scalability issues related to the comparison across scales are discussed and further emphasised when the industry moves towards the next-generation techniques. Finally, the critical aspects of the innovations and industrial modifications that aim to overcome the main challenges are presented.