Inverse Thermogelation of Aqueous Triblock Copolymer Solutions into Macroporous Shear-Thinning 3D Printable Inks

Assessment of the viability and mechanoresponsiveness of hMSC-TERT printed with bioinert, thermoresponsive hydrogels

During three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting, the integration of living cells into hydrogel matrices results in complex biophysicochemical interactions between viscosity, shear stress, and temperature, critically influencing the structural and functional integrity of the resulting constructs. This study delves into the short-term biological ramifications of 3D extrusion printing of telomerase-immortalized human mesenchymal stromal cells (hMSC-TERT) embedded in bioinert hydrogels. Pluronic F127 and custom-synthesized poly(2-methyl-2-oxazoline)-block-poly(2-n-propyl-2-oxazine) (POx/POzi) are synthetic, block copolymers that create shear-thinning, physically crosslinked hydrogels that were used for this study. The rheological properties of the cell-free hydrogels and cell-laden bioinks were examined, revealing that they exhibited comparable behavior. Contrary to the original hypotheses, a key finding of this research is the reduction in cell viability (up to 50%) within 24 h post-printing, a trend consistently observed across varying initial conditions. The relative expression levels of the mechanoresponsive genes FOS and PTGS2 were increased, partly due to the suspension and incubation of the cells in both hydrogels. Only FOS was significantly upregulated in some cases because of the printing process after 2 and 4 h of incubation. These insights highlight the potential of using POx/POzi hydrogel as a matrix in 3D bioprinting, particularly for depositing hMSC-TERT into structures with vasculature-mimicking scaffolds or scaffolds designed for bone regeneration.

Evaluating Swellable Cross-Linked Biopolymer Impact on Ink Rheology and Mechanical Properties of Drug-Contained 3D-Printed Thin Film

Background/Objectives: Interest in 3D printing oral thin films (OTFs) has increased substantially. The challenge of 3D printing is film printability, which is strongly affected by the rheological properties of the ink and having suitable mechanical properties. This research assesses the suitability of sodium starch glycolate (SSG), a swellable cross-linked biopolymer, on ink rheology and the film's mechanical properties. Methods: A water-based ink comprising sodium alginate (SA), the drug fenofibrate (FNB), SSG, glycerin, and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) was formulated, and its rheology was assessed through flow, amplitude sweeps, and thixotropy tests. Films (10 mm × 15 mm × 0.35 mm) were 3D-printed using a 410 µm nozzle, 50% infill density, 60 kPa pressure, and 10 mm/s speed, with mechanical properties (Young's modulus, tensile strength, and elongation at break) analyzed using a TA-XT Plus C texture analyzer. Results: The rheology showed SSG-based ink has suitable properties (shear-thinning behavior, high viscosity, higher modulus, and quick recovery) for 3D printing. SSG enhanced the rheology (viscosity and modulus) of ink but not the mechanical properties of film. XRD and DSC confirmed preserved FNB crystallinity without polymorphic changes. SEM images showed surface morphology and particle distribution across the film. The film demonstrated a drug loading of 44.28% (RSD 5.62%) and a dissolution rate of ~77% within 30 min. Conclusions: SSG improves ink rheology, makes it compatible with 3D printing, and enhances drug dissolution (formulation F-5). Plasticizer glycerin is essential with SSG to achieve the film's required mechanical properties. The study confirms SSG's suitability for 3D printing of OTFs.

Thermosensitive Triblock Copolymer for Slow-Release Lubricants under Ocular Conditions

The ocular environment is crucial for a biological lubrication system. An unstable condition of tear film may cause a series of ocular diseases due to serious friction, such as dry eye syndrome, which has drawn extensive attention nowadays. In this study, an in vitro biocompatible superlubricity system, containing thermogelling copolymers (PCGA-PEG-PCGA) and slow-release lubricant (PEG 300/Tween 80), was constructed. First, the sol-gel transition temperature and gel strength of PCGA-PEG-PCGA were adjusted based on the ocular environment by regulating the length of PCGA blocks. Furthermore, the copolymer hydrogel exhibited a reliable slow-release property within 10 days and showed low cytotoxicity. Then, the superlubricity (coefficient of friction of approximately 0.005) was achieved with its released PEG 300/Tween 80 aqueous solution at the sliding velocity range of 1-100 mm s-1 and pressure range of 10-22 kPa. However, the lubrication behaviors varied, while PEG 300 chains and Tween 80 micelles were demonstrated to form a multilayer and a single layer adsorption structure on the sliding surface, respectively. On the whole, the composite lubrication systems, especially the one composed of Tween 80, showed excellent tribological properties owing to the stable slow-release and full hydration effects under ocular conditions, which hold great potential for improving ocular lubrication and maintaining human visual health.

Biological Activity In Vitro, Absorption, BBB Penetration, and Tolerability of Nanoformulation of BT44:RET Agonist with Disease-Modifying Potential for the Treatment of Neurodegeneration

BT44 is a novel, second-generation glial cell line-derived neurotropic factor mimetic with improved biological activity and is a lead compound for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders. Like many other small molecules, it suffers from intrinsic poor aqueous solubility, posing significant hurdles at various levels for its preclinical development and clinical translation. Herein, we report a poly(2-oxazoline)s (POx)-based BT44 micellar nanoformulation with an ultrahigh drug-loading capacity of 47 wt %. The BT44 nanoformulation was comprehensively characterized by 1H NMR spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), dynamic light scattering (DLS), and cryo-transmission/scanning electron microscopy (cryo-TEM/SEM). The DSC, XRD, and redispersion studies collectively confirmed that the BT44 formulation can be stored as a lyophilized powder and can be redispersed upon need. The DLS suggested that the redispersed formulation is suitable for parenteral administration (Dh ≈ 70 nm). The cryo-TEM measurements showed the presence of wormlike structures in both the plain polymer and the BT44 formulation. The BT44 formulation retained biological activity in immortalized cells and in cultured dopamine neurons. The micellar nanoformulation of BT44 exhibited improved absorption (after subcutaneous injection) and blood-brain barrier (BBB) penetration, and no acute toxic effects in mice were observed. In conclusion, herein, we have developed an ultrahigh BT44-loaded aqueous injectable nanoformulation, which can be used to pave the way for its preclinical and clinical development for the management of neurodegenerative disorders.

Unraveling an Alternative Mechanism in Polymer Self-Assemblies: An Order-Order Transition with Unusual Molecular Interactions between Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Polymer Blocks

Polymer self-assembly leading to cooling-induced hydrogel formation is relatively rare for synthetic polymers and typically relies on H-bonding between repeat units. Here, we describe a non-H-bonding mechanism for a cooling-induced reversible order-order (sphere-to-worm) transition and related thermogelation of solutions of polymer self-assemblies. A multitude of complementary analytical tools allowed us to reveal that a significant fraction of the hydrophobic and hydrophilic repeat units of the underlying block copolymer is in close proximity in the gel state. This unusual interaction between hydrophilic and hydrophobic blocks reduces the mobility of the hydrophilic block significantly by condensing the hydrophilic block onto the hydrophobic micelle core, thereby affecting the micelle packing parameter. This triggers the order-order transition from well-defined spherical micelles to long worm-like micelles, which ultimately results in the inverse thermogelation. Molecular dynamics modeling indicates that this unexpected condensation of the hydrophilic corona onto the hydrophobic core is due to particular interactions between amide groups in the hydrophilic repeat units and phenyl rings in the hydrophobic ones. Consequently, changes in the structure of the hydrophilic blocks affecting the strength of the interaction could be used to control macromolecular self-assembly, thus allowing for the tuning of gel characteristics such as strength, persistence, and gelation kinetics. We believe that this mechanism might be a relevant interaction pattern for other polymeric materials as well as their interaction in and with biological environments. For example, controlling the gel characteristics could be considered important for applications in drug delivery or biofabrication.

Injectable Hybrid-Crosslinked Hydrogels as Fatigue-Resistant and Shape-Stable Skin Depots

Injectable hydrogels have gained considerable attention, but they are typically mechanically weak and subject to repeated physiological stresses in the body. Herein, we prepared polyurethane diacrylate (EPC-DA) hydrogels, which are injectable and can be photocrosslinked into fatigue-resistant implants. The mechanical properties can be tuned by changing photocrosslinking conditions, and the hybrid-crosslinked EPC-DA hydrogels exhibited high stability and sustained release properties. In contrast to common injectable hydrogels, EPC-DA hydrogels exhibited excellent antifatigue properties with >90% recovery during cyclic compression tests and showed shape stability after application of force and immersion in an aqueous buffer for 35 days. The EPC-DA hydrogel formed a shape-stable hydrogel depot in an ex vivo porcine skin model, with establishment of a temporary soft gel before in situ fixing by UV crosslinking. Hybrid crosslinking using injectable polymeric micelles or nanoparticles may be a general strategy for producing hydrogel implants resistant to physiological stresses.

Morphological transitions of cationic PISA particles by salt, triflate ions and temperature; comparison of three polycations

Three strong polycation stabilizers, poly((vinylbenzyl) trimethylammonium chloride), PVBTMAC, poly((2-(methacryloyloxy)ethyl)trimethylammonium chloride), PMOTAC, and poly((3-acrylamidopropyl) trimethylammonium chloride), PAMPTMAC have been synthesized with reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer, RAFT, reactions. Solubilities of the polycations...

Polyoxazoline Hydrogels fabricated by Stereolithography

The development of hydrogel materials in additive manufacturing displaying stiff and strong mechanical properties while maintaining high water uptake, remains a great challenge. Taking advantage of the versatility of poly(oxazoline)...

A thermogelling organic-inorganic hybrid hydrogel with excellent printability, shape fidelity and cytocompatibility for 3D bioprinting

Alginates are the most commonly used bioink in biofabrication, but their rheological profiles makes it very challenging to perform real 3D printing. In this study, an advanced hybrid hydrogel ink was developed, a mixture of thermogelling diblock copolymer, alginate and clay i.e. Laponite XLG. The reversible thermogelling and shear thinning properties of the diblock copolymer in the ink system improves handling and 3D printability significantly. Various three-dimensional constructs, including suspended filaments, were printed successfully with high shape fidelity and excellent stackability. Subsequent ionic crosslinking of alginate fixates the printed scaffolds, while the diblock copolymer is washed out of the structure, acting as a fugitive material on the (macro)molecular level. Finally, cell-laden printing and culture over 21 days demonstrated good cytocompatibility and feasibility of the novel hybrid hydrogels for 3D bioprinting. We believe that the developed material could be interesting for a wide range of bioprinting applications including tissue engineering and drug screening, potentially enabling also other biological bioinks such as collagen, hyaluronic acid, decellularized extracellular matrix or cellulose based bioinks.

Freeform direct laser writing of versatile topological 3D scaffolds enabled by intrinsic support hydrogel

In this study, a novel approach to create arbitrarily shaped 3D hydrogel objects is presented, wherein freeform two-photon polymerization (2PP) is enabled by the combination of a photosensitive hydrogel and an intrinsic support matrix. This way, topologies without physical contact such as a highly porous 3D network of concatenated rings were realized, which are impossible to manufacture with most current 3D printing technologies. Micro-Raman and nanoindentation measurements show the possibility to control water uptake and hence tailor the Young's modulus of the structures via the light dosage, proving the versatility of the concept regarding many scaffold characteristics that makes it well suited for cell specific cell culture as demonstrated by cultivation of human induced pluripotent stem cell derived cardiomyocytes.

From Thermogelling Hydrogels toward Functional Bioinks: Controlled Modification and Cytocompatible Crosslinking

Hydrogels are key components in bioink formulations to ensure printability and stability in biofabrication. In this study, a well-known Diels-Alder two-step post-polymerization modification approach is introduced into thermogelling diblock copolymers, comprising poly(2-methyl-2-oxazoline) and thermoresponsive poly(2-n-propyl-2-oxazine). The diblock copolymers are partially hydrolyzed and subsequently modified by acid/amine coupling with furan and maleimide moieties. While the thermogelling and shear-thinning properties allow excellent printability, trigger-less cell-friendly Diels-Alder click-chemistry yields long-term shape-fidelity. The introduced platform enables easy incorporation of cell-binding moieties (RGD-peptide) for cellular interaction. The hydrogel is functionalized with RGD-peptides using thiol-maleimide chemistry and cell proliferation as well as morphology of fibroblasts seeded on top of the hydrogels confirm the cell adhesion facilitated by the peptides. Finally, bioink formulations are tested for biocompatibility by incorporating fibroblasts homogenously inside the polymer solution pre-printing. After the printing and crosslinking process good cytocompatibility is confirmed. The established bioink system combines a two-step approach by physical precursor gelation followed by an additional chemical stabilization, offering a broad versatility for further biomechanical adaptation or bioresponsive peptide modification.

Tuning the Thermogelation and Rheology of Poly(2-Oxazoline)/Poly(2-Oxazine)s Based Thermosensitive Hydrogels for 3D Bioprinting

As one kind of "smart" material, thermogelling polymers find applications in biofabrication, drug delivery and regenerative medicine. In this work, we report a thermosensitive poly(2-oxazoline)/poly(2-oxazine) based diblock copolymer comprising thermosensitive/moderately hydrophobic poly(2-N-propyl-2-oxazine) (pPrOzi) and thermosensitive/moderately hydrophilic poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) (pEtOx). Hydrogels were only formed when block length exceeded certain length (≈100 repeat units). The tube inversion and rheological tests showed that the material has then a reversible sol-gel transition above 25 wt.% concentration. Rheological tests further revealed a gel strength around 3 kPa, high shear thinning property and rapid shear recovery after stress, which are highly desirable properties for extrusion based three-dimensional (3D) (bio) printing. Attributed to the rheology profile, well resolved printability and high stackability (with added laponite) was also possible. (Cryo) scanning electron microscopy exhibited a highly porous, interconnected, 3D network. The sol-state at lower temperatures (in ice bath) facilitated the homogeneous distribution of (fluorescently labelled) human adipose derived stem cells (hADSCs) in the hydrogel matrix. Post-printing live/dead assays revealed that the hADSCs encapsulated within the hydrogel remained viable (≈97%). This thermoreversible and (bio) printable hydrogel demonstrated promising properties for use in tissue engineering applications.

An Inverse Thermogelling Bioink Based on an ABA-Type Poly(2-oxazoline) Amphiphile

Hydrogels are key components in several biomedical research areas such as drug delivery, tissue engineering, and biofabrication. Here, a novel ABA-type triblock copolymer comprising poly(2-methyl-2-oxazoline) as the hydrophilic A blocks and poly(2-phenethyl-2-oxazoline) as the aromatic and hydrophobic B block is introduced. Above the critical micelle concentration, the polymer self-assembles into small spherical polymer micelles with a hydrodynamic radius of approx 8-8.5 nm. Interestingly, this specific combination of hydrophilic and hydrophobic aromatic moieties leads to rapid thermoresponsive inverse gelation at polymer concentrations above a critical gelation concentration (20 wt %) into a macroporous hydrogel of densely packed micelles. This hydrogel exhibited pronounced viscoelastic solid-like properties, as well as extensive shear-thinning, rapid structure recovery, and good strain resistance properties. Excellent 3D-printability of the hydrogel at lower temperature opens a wide range of different applications, for example, in the field of biofabrication. In preliminary bioprinting experiments using NIH 3T3 cells, excellent cell viabilities of more than 95% were achieved. The particularly interesting feature of this novel material is that it can be used as a printing support in hybrid bioink systems and sacrificial bioink due to rapid dissolution at physiological conditions.

Development of a 3D printable and highly stretchable ternary organic-inorganic nanocomposite hydrogel

Hydrogels that can be processed with additive manufacturing techniques and concomitantly possess favorable mechanical properties are interesting for many advanced applications. However, the development of novel ink materials with high intrinsic 3D printing performance has been proven to be a major challenge. Herein, a novel 3D printable organic-inorganic hybrid hydrogel is developed from three components, and characterized in detail in terms of rheological property, swelling behavior and composition. The nanocomposite hydrogel combines a thermoresponsive hydrogel with clay LAPONITE® XLG and in situ polymerized poly(N,N-dimethylacrylamide). Before in situ polymerization, the thermogelling and shear thinning properties of the thermoresponsive hydrogel provides a system well-suited for extrusion-based 3D printing. After chemical curing of the 3D-printed constructs by free radical polymerization, the resulting interpenetrating polymer network hydrogel shows excellent mechanical strength with a high stretchability to a tensile strain at break exceeding 550%. Integrating with the advanced 3D-printing technique, the introduced material could be interesting for a wide range of applications including tissue engineering, drug delivery, soft robotics and additive manufacturing in general.

The role of poly(2-alkyl-2-oxazoline)s in hydrogels and biofabrication

Poly(2-alkyl-2-oxazoline)s (PAOXAs) have been rapidly emerging as starting materials in the design of tissue engineering supports and for the generation of platforms for cell cultures, especially in the form of hydrogels. Thanks to their biocompatibility, chemical versatility and robustness, PAOXAs now represent a valid alternative to poly(ethylene glycol)s (PEGs) and their derivatives in these applications, and in the formulation of bioinks for three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting. In this review, we summarize the recent literature where PAOXAs have been used as main components for hydrogels and biofabrication mixtures, especially highlighting how their easily tunable composition could be exploited to fabricate multifunctional biomaterials with an extremely broad spectrum of properties.

Poly(2-oxazoline)- and Poly(2-oxazine)-Based Self-Assemblies, Polyplexes, and Drug Nanoformulations-An Update

For many decades, poly(2-oxazoline)s and poly(2-oxazine)s, two closely related families of polymers, have led the life of a rather obscure research topic with only a few research groups world-wide working with them. This has changed in the last five to ten years, presumably triggered significantly by very promising clinical trials of the first poly(2-oxazoline)-based drug conjugate. The huge chemical and structural toolbox poly(2-oxazoline)s and poly(2-oxazine)s has been extended very significantly in the last few years, but their potential still remains largely untapped. Here, specifically, the developments in macromolecular self-assemblies and non-covalent drug delivery systems such as polyplexes and drug nanoformulations based on poly(2-oxazoline)s and poly(2-oxazine)s are reviewed. This highly dynamic field benefits particularly from the extensive synthetic toolbox poly(2-oxazoline)s and poly(2-oxazine)s offer and also may have the largest potential for a further development. It is expected that the research dynamics will remain high in the next few years, particularly as more about the safety and therapeutic potential of poly(2-oxazoline)s and poly(2-oxazine)s is learned.

Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline-co-N-propylethylene imine)s by controlled partial reduction of poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline): synthesis, characterization and cytotoxicity

Cationic polymers obtained via partial reduction of poly(2-ethy-2-oxazoline)s were studied on their cytocompatibility and their buffer capacity in acidic environment.

Crosslinking of hydrophilic polymers using polyperoxides

Hydrogels that can mimic mechanical properties and functions of biological tissue have attracted great interest in tissue engineering and biofabrication. In these fields, new materials and approaches to prepare hydrogels without using toxic starting materials or materials that decompose into toxic compounds remain to be sought after. Here, we report the crosslinking of commercial, unfunctionalized hydrophilic poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) using peroxide copolymers in their melt. The influence of temperature, peroxide copolymer concentration, and duration of the crosslinking process has been investigated. The method allows to create hydrogels from unfunctionalized polymers in their melt and to control the mechanical properties of the resulting materials. The design of hydrogels with a suitable mechanical performance is of crucial importance in many existing and potential applications of soft materials, including medical applications.

Extrusion 3D Printing of Polymeric Materials with Advanced Properties

3D printing is a rapidly growing technology that has an enormous potential to impact a wide range of industries such as engineering, art, education, medicine, and aerospace. The flexibility in design provided by this technique offers many opportunities for manufacturing sophisticated 3D devices. The most widely utilized method is an extrusion-based solid-freeform fabrication approach, which is an extremely attractive additive manufacturing technology in both academic and industrial research communities. This method is versatile, with the ability to print a range of dimensions, multimaterial, and multifunctional 3D structures. It is also a very affordable technique in prototyping. However, the lack of variety in printable polymers with advanced material properties becomes the main bottleneck in further development of this technology. Herein, a comprehensive review is provided, focusing on material design strategies to achieve or enhance the 3D printability of a range of polymers including thermoplastics, thermosets, hydrogels, and other polymers by extrusion techniques. Moreover, diverse advanced properties exhibited by such printed polymers, such as mechanical strength, conductance, self-healing, as well as other integrated properties are highlighted. Lastly, the stimuli responsiveness of the 3D printed polymeric materials including shape morphing, degradability, and color changing is also discussed.