Hyperpolarized [6-13C,15N3]-Arginine as a Probe for in Vivo Arginase Activity

Directly monitoring the dynamic in vivo metabolisms of hyperpolarized 13C-oligopeptides

Peptides play essential roles in biological phenomena, and, thus, there is a growing interest in detecting in vivo dynamics of peptide metabolisms. Dissolution-dynamic nuclear polarization (d-DNP) is a state-of-the-art technology that can markedly enhance the sensitivity of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), providing metabolic and physiological information in vivo. However, the hyperpolarized state exponentially decays back to the thermal equilibrium, depending on the spin-lattice relaxation time (T1). Because of the limitation in T1, peptide-based DNP NMR molecular probes applicable in vivo have been limited to amino acids or dipeptides. Here, we report the direct detection of in vivo metabolic conversions of hyperpolarized 13C-oligopeptides. Structure-based T1 relaxation analysis suggests that the C-terminal [1-13C]Gly-d2 residue affords sufficient T1 for biological uses, even in relatively large oligopeptides, and allowed us to develop 13C-β-casomorphin-5 and 13C-glutathione. It was found that the metabolic response and perfusion of the hyperpolarized 13C-glutathione in the mouse kidney were significantly altered in a model of cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury.

Detecting biomarkers by dynamic nuclear polarization enhanced magnetic resonance

Hyperpolarization stands out as a technique capable of significantly enhancing the sensitivity of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP), among various hyperpolarization methods, has gained prominence for its efficacy in real-time monitoring of metabolism and physiology. By administering a hyperpolarized substrate through dissolution DNP (dDNP), the biodistribution and metabolic changes of the DNP agent can be visualized spatiotemporally. This approach proves to be a distinctive and invaluable tool for non-invasively studying cellular metabolism in vivo, particularly in animal models. Biomarkers play a pivotal role in influencing the growth and metastasis of tumor cells by closely interacting with them, and accordingly detecting pathological alterations of these biomarkers is crucial for disease diagnosis and therapy. In recent years, a range of hyperpolarized DNP molecular bioresponsive agents utilizing various nuclei, such as 13C, 15N, 31P, 89Y, etc., have been developed. In this context, we explore how these magnetic resonance signals of nuclear spins enhanced by DNP respond to biomarkers, including pH, metal ions, enzymes, or redox processes. This review aims to offer insights into the design principles of responsive DNP agents, target selection, and the mechanisms of action for imaging. Such discussions aim to propel the future development and application of DNP-based biomedical imaging agents.

New Horizons in Hyperpolarized 13C MRI

Hyperpolarization techniques significantly enhance the sensitivity of magnetic resonance (MR) and thus present fascinating new directions for research and applications with in vivo MR imaging and spectroscopy (MRI/S). Hyperpolarized 13C MRI/S, in particular, enables real-time non-invasive assessment of metabolic processes and holds great promise for a diverse range of clinical applications spanning fields like oncology, neurology, and cardiology, with a potential for improving early diagnosis of disease, patient stratification, and therapy response assessment. Despite its potential, technical challenges remain for achieving clinical translation. This paper provides an overview of the discussions that took place at the international workshop "New Horizons in Hyperpolarized 13C MRI," in March 2023 at the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Munich, Germany. The workshop covered new developments, as well as future directions, in topics including polarization techniques (particularly focusing on parahydrogen-based methods), novel probes, considerations related to data acquisition and analysis, and emerging clinical applications in oncology and other fields.

Micro-Slab Coil Design for Hyperpolarized Metabolic Flux Analysis in Multiple Samples

Abnormal metabolism is a hallmark of cancer cells. Accumulating evidence suggests that metabolic changes are likely to occur before other cellular responses in cancer cells upon drug treatment. Therefore, the metabolic activity or flux in cancer cells could be a potent biomarker for cancer detection and treatment monitoring. Magnetic resonance (MR)-based sensing technologies have been developed with hyperpolarized molecules for real-time flux analysis, but they still suffer from low sensitivity and throughput. To address this limitation, we have developed an innovative miniaturized MR coil, termed micro-slab MR coil, for simultaneous analysis of metabolic flux in multiple samples. Combining this approach with hyperpolarized probes, we were able to quantify the pyruvate-to-lactate flux in two different leukemic cell lines in a non-destructive manner, simultaneously. Further, we were able to rapidly assess flux changes with drug treatment in a single hyperpolarization experiment. This new multi-sample system has the potential to transform our ability to assess metabolic dynamics at scale.

In-cell NMR: Why and how?

NMR spectroscopy has been applied to cells and tissues analysis since its beginnings, as early as 1950. We have attempted to gather here in a didactic fashion the broad diversity of data and ideas that emerged from NMR investigations on living cells. Covering a large proportion of the periodic table, NMR spectroscopy permits scrutiny of a great variety of atomic nuclei in all living organisms non-invasively. It has thus provided quantitative information on cellular atoms and their chemical environment, dynamics, or interactions. We will show that NMR studies have generated valuable knowledge on a vast array of cellular molecules and events, from water, salts, metabolites, cell walls, proteins, nucleic acids, drugs and drug targets, to pH, redox equilibria and chemical reactions. The characterization of such a multitude of objects at the atomic scale has thus shaped our mental representation of cellular life at multiple levels, together with major techniques like mass-spectrometry or microscopies. NMR studies on cells has accompanied the developments of MRI and metabolomics, and various subfields have flourished, coined with appealing names: fluxomics, foodomics, MRI and MRS (i.e. imaging and localized spectroscopy of living tissues, respectively), whole-cell NMR, on-cell ligand-based NMR, systems NMR, cellular structural biology, in-cell NMR… All these have not grown separately, but rather by reinforcing each other like a braided trunk. Hence, we try here to provide an analytical account of a large ensemble of intricately linked approaches, whose integration has been and will be key to their success. We present extensive overviews, firstly on the various types of information provided by NMR in a cellular environment (the "why", oriented towards a broad readership), and secondly on the employed NMR techniques and setups (the "how", where we discuss the past, current and future methods). Each subsection is constructed as a historical anthology, showing how the intrinsic properties of NMR spectroscopy and its developments structured the accessible knowledge on cellular phenomena. Using this systematic approach, we sought i) to make this review accessible to the broadest audience and ii) to highlight some early techniques that may find renewed interest. Finally, we present a brief discussion on what may be potential and desirable developments in the context of integrative studies in biology.

Hyperpolarized [5-13C,4,4-2H2,5-15N]-L-glutamine provides a means of annotating in vivo metabolic utilization of glutamine

Glutamine is the most abundant amino acid in human plasma, although it is challenging to determine glutamine’s metabolic fate noninvasively. In this work, we utilize established chemical methods to develop a platform for imaging glutamine metabolism using hyperpolarized magnetic resonance imaging. Using this strategy, we are able to spatially measure glutaminolysis in vivo as well as develop a biomarker for the inhibition of glutaminase. Combining this biomarker with isotope tracing metabolomics connects this inhibition to reduced glutamine contribution to the tricarboxylic acid cycle. This provides an approach for future imaging of glutamine metabolism in humans.

Glutamine is consumed by rapidly proliferating cells and can provide the carbon and nitrogen required for growth through various metabolic pathways. However, delineating the metabolic fate of glutamine is challenging to interrogate in vivo. Hyperpolarized magnetic resonance, by providing high transient nuclear magnetic resonance signals, provides an approach to measure fast biochemical processes in vivo. Aminohydrolysis of glutamine at carbon-5 plays an important role in providing nitrogen and carbon for multiple pathways. Here, we provide a synthetic strategy for isotope-enriched forms of glutamine that prolongs glutamine-C5 relaxation times and thereby reveals in vivo reactions involving carbon-5. We investigate multiple enrichment states, finding [5-¹³C,4,4-²H₂,5-¹⁵N]-L-glutamine to be optimal for hyperpolarized measurement of glutamine conversion to glutamate in vivo. Leveraging this compound, we explore pancreatic cancer glutamine metabolism in vivo. Taken together, this work provides a means for studying glutamine metabolic flux in vivo and demonstrates on-target effects of metabolic enzyme inhibitors.

Structure-guided design enables development of a hyperpolarized molecular probe for the detection of aminopeptidase N activity in vivo

Dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) is a cutting-edge technique that markedly enhances the detection sensitivity of molecules using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)/magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). This methodology enables real-time imaging of dynamic metabolic status in vivo using MRI. To expand the targetable metabolic reactions, there is a demand for developing exogenous, i.e., artificially designed, DNP-NMR molecular probes; however, complying with the requirements of practical DNP-NMR molecular probes is challenging because of the lack of established design guidelines. Here, we report Ala-[1-¹³C]Gly-d₂-NMe₂ as a DNP-NMR molecular probe for in vivo detection of aminopeptidase N activity. We developed this probe rationally through precise structural investigation, calculation, biochemical assessment, and advanced molecular design to achieve rapid and detectable responses to enzyme activity in vivo. With the fabricated probe, we successfully detected enzymatic activity in vivo. This report presents a comprehensive approach for the development of artificially derived, practical DNP-NMR molecular probes through structure-guided molecular design.

Hyperpolarized Micro-NMR Platform for Sensitive Analysis of In Vitro Metabolic Flux in Living Cells

Metabolism represents an ensemble of cellular biochemical reactions, and thus metabolic analyses can shed light on the state of cells. Metabolic changes in response to external cues, such as drug treatment, for example, can be rapid and potentially an early indicator of therapeutic response. Unfortunately, conventional techniques to study metabolism, such as optical microscopy or mass spectrometry, have functional limitations in specificity and sensitivity. To address this technical need, we developed a sensitive analytical tool based on nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) technology, termed hyperpolarized micro-NMR, that enables rapid quantification of multiple metabolic fluxes in a small number of cells, down to 10,000 cells, nondestructively. This analytical capability was achieved by miniaturization of an NMR detection coil along with hyperpolarization of endogenous metabolites. Using this tool, we were able to quantify pyruvate-to-lactate flux in cancer stem cells nondestructively within 2 min, which has not been possible with other techniques. With further optimization, we envision that this novel device could be a powerful analytical platform for sensitive analysis of metabolism in mass-limited samples.

Real-Time insight into in vivo redox status utilizing hyperpolarized [1-13C] N-acetyl cysteine

Drastic sensitivity enhancement of dynamic nuclear polarization is becoming an increasingly critical methodology to monitor real-time metabolic and physiological information in chemistry, biochemistry, and biomedicine. However, the limited number of available hyperpolarized ¹³C probes, which can effectively interrogate crucial metabolic activities, remains one of the major bottlenecks in this growing field. Here, we demonstrate [1-¹³C] N-acetyl cysteine (NAC) as a novel probe for hyperpolarized ¹³C MRI to monitor glutathione redox chemistry, which plays a central part of metabolic chemistry and strongly influences various therapies. NAC forms a disulfide bond in the presence of reduced glutathione, which generates a spectroscopically detectable product that is separated from the main peak by a 1.5 ppm shift. In vivo hyperpolarized MRI in mice revealed that NAC was broadly distributed throughout the body including the brain. Its biochemical transformation in two human pancreatic tumor cells in vitro and as xenografts differed depending on the individual cellular biochemical profile and microenvironment in vivo. Hyperpolarized NAC can be a promising non-invasive biomarker to monitor in vivo redox status and can be potentially translatable to clinical diagnosis.

Immunometabolism of Tissue-Resident Macrophages - An Appraisal of the Current Knowledge and Cutting-Edge Methods and Technologies

Tissue-resident macrophages exist in unique environments, or niches, that inform their identity and function. There is an emerging body of literature suggesting that the qualities of this environment, such as the types of cells and debris they eat, the intercellular interactions they form, and the length of time spent in residence, collectively what we call habitare, directly inform their metabolic state. In turn, a tissue-resident macrophage’s metabolic state can inform their function, including whether they resolve inflammation and protect the host from excessive perturbations of homeostasis. In this review, we summarize recent work that seeks to understand the metabolic requirements for tissue-resident macrophage identity and maintenance, for how they respond to inflammatory challenges, and for how they perform homeostatic functions or resolve inflammatory insults. We end with a discussion of the emerging technologies that are enabling, or will enable, in situ study of tissue-resident macrophage metabolism.

Biomedical Applications of the Dynamic Nuclear Polarization and Parahydrogen Induced Polarization Techniques for Hyperpolarized 13C MR Imaging

Since the first pioneering report of hyperpolarized [1-13C]pyruvate magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the Warburg effect in prostate cancer patients, clinical dissemination of the technique has been rapid; close to 10 sites worldwide now possess a polarizer fit for the clinic, and more than 30 clinical trials, predominantly for oncological applications, are already registered on the US and European clinical trials databases. Hyperpolarized 13C probes to study pathophysiological processes beyond the Warburg effect, including tricarboxylic acid cycle metabolism, intra-cellular pH and cellular necrosis have also been demonstrated in the preclinical arena and are pending clinical translation, and the simultaneous injection of multiple co-polarized agents is opening the door to high-sensitivity, multi-functional molecular MRI with a single dose. Here, we review the biomedical applications to date of the two polarization methods that have been used for in vivo hyperpolarized 13C molecular MRI; namely, dissolution dynamic nuclear polarization and parahydrogen-induced polarization. The basic concept of hyperpolarization and the fundamental theory underpinning these two key 13C hyperpolarization methods, along with recent technological advances that have facilitated biomedical realization, are also covered.

Design of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Molecular Probes for Hyperpolarized Bioimaging

Nuclear hyperpolarization has emerged as a method to dramatically enhance the sensitivity of NMR spectroscopy. By application of this powerful tool, small molecules with stable isotopes have been used for highly sensitive biomedical molecular imaging. The recent development of molecular probes for hyperpolarized in vivo analysis has demonstrated the ability of this technique to provide unique metabolic and physiological information. This review presents a brief introduction of hyperpolarization technology, approaches to the rational design of molecular probes for hyperpolarized analysis, and examples of molecules that have met with success in vitro or in vivo.

Imaging Brain Metabolism Using Hyperpolarized 13C Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

Aberrant metabolism is a key factor in many neurological disorders. The ability to measure such metabolic impairment could lead to improved detection of disease progression, and development and monitoring of new therapeutic approaches. Hyperpolarized ¹³C magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) is a developing imaging technique that enables non-invasive measurement of enzymatic activity in real time in living organisms. Primarily applied in the fields of cancer and cardiac disease so far, this metabolic imaging method has recently been used to investigate neurological disorders. In this review, we summarize the preclinical research developments in this emerging field, and discuss future prospects for this exciting technology, which has the potential to change the clinical paradigm for patients with neurological disorders.