Enhancement of the Transdermal Delivery of Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs Using Liposomes Containing Cationic Surfactants

Topical delivery performance of Pickering emulsions stabilized by differently charged spirulina protein isolate/Chitosan composite particles

Pickering emulsions, stabilized by particulate particles, have emerged as a promising vehicle for topical delivery. Herein, Pickering emulsions stabilized by differently charged spirulina protein isolate - chitosan (SC) composite particles were studied for effective topical delivery of α-Bisabolol (ABS). The composite particles were synthesized via electrostatic assembly of spirulina protein isolate (SPI) and chitosan (CS), and their surface charge was assessed using zeta potential measurements. The Pickering emulsions stabilized by SC composite particles with different charges were all stable over 30 days and had a high encapsulation efficiency for ABS. In vitro skin permeation study revealed that positively charged emulsions significantly increased ABS retention within the skin, predominantly in the stratum corneum layer. The underlying delivery mechanism was further explored using attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Lastly, the influence of particle concentration and oil phase volume fraction on the topical delivery efficiency was conducted to optimize the Pickering formulations. This study provides insight into the role of particle charge in enhancing topical delivery of Pickering emulsions.

Influence of CTAB Reverse Micellar Confinement on the Tetrahedral Structure of Liquid Water

The effect of confinement on the tetrahedral ordering of liquid water plays a vital role in controlling their microscopic structure and dynamics as well as their spectroscopic properties. In this article, we have performed the classical molecular dynamics simulations of four different CTAB/water/chloroform reverse micelles with varied water content to study how the tetrahedral ordering of nanoscale water inside reverse micellar confinement influences the microscopic dynamics and the structural relaxation of water···water hydrogen bonds and its impact on the low-frequency intermolecular vibrational bands. We have noticed from the results obtained from simulated trajectories the lowering trends of tetrahedral ordering of water pools in reverse micellar confinements as we move from bulk to confined and strictly confined environments. We have observed that the order of confinements significantly altered the relaxation pattern of water···water hydrogen bonds present in the nanoscale water pool of reverse micelles. The recrossing related to hydrogen bond dynamics can effectively explain the relaxation pattern of C HB WW ( t ) under confinement. The Br-1···water hydrogen bond depicts a much slower relaxation compared to the water···water hydrogen bonds inside reverse micelles. We have also explored the correlation between the tetrahedral ordering of nanoscale water pools and the relaxation of water···water hydrogen bonds with the 50 cm-1 band for water inside reverse micelles. The computations reported that compared to bulk water, the band appearing at 50 cm-1 for O···O···O triplet bending is nonuniformly blue-shifted by 18-45 cm-1 for the nanoscale water pool inside reverse micelles, and the intensity of the band drops from bulk to confined and strictly confined environments, which indicates the reduced tendency of such triplet formation. It is observed that a significant intensity variation at the 200 cm-1 band correlates with the effect of confinement on the tetrahedral ordering of the water pool inside reverse micelles. So, our observations support the influence of strictly confined environments on the tetrahedral water structure to adopt the quasi-two-dimensional water network and experience restricted longitudinal translations. It is further noticed that the 500 cm-1 librational band is also found to be blue-shifted by 71-112 cm-1 for the water pool in reverse micelles, and the extent of the shift being more noticeable for strictly confined environments correlates excellently with the sluggish relaxation of water···water hydrogen bonds in such environments.

An overview of phospholipid enriched-edge activator-based vesicle nanocarriers: new paradigms to treat skin cancer

Skin cancer poses a significant global health concern necessitating innovative treatment approaches. This review explores the potential of vesicle nanoformulation incorporating EA (edge activators) to overcome barriers in skin cancer management. The skin's inherent protective mechanisms, specifically the outermost layer called the stratum corneum and the network of blood arteries, impede the permeation of drugs. Phospholipid-enriched EA based nanoformulation offer a promising solution by enhancing drug penetration through skin barriers. EAs like Span 80, Span 20, Tween 20, and sodium cholate etc., enhance vesicles deformability, influencing drug permeation. This review discusses topical application of drugs treat skin cancer, highlighting challenges connected with the conventional liposome and the significance of using EA-based nanoformulation in overcoming these challenges. Furthermore, it provides insights into various EA characteristics, critical insights, clinical trials, and patents. The review also offers a concise overview of composition, preparation techniques, and the application of EA-based nanoformulation such as transfersomes, transliposomes, transethosomes, and transniosomes for delivering drugs to treat skin cancer. Overall, this review intends to accelerate the development of formulations that incorporate EA, which would further improve topical drug delivery and enhance therapeutic outcomes in skin cancer treatment.

Electrical Conductivity as an Informative Factor of the Properties of Liposomal Systems with Naproxen Sodium for Transdermal Application

Liposomal preparations play an important role as formulations for transdermal drug delivery; however, the electrical conductivity of these systems is sparingly evaluated. The aim of the study was to outline the range of the values of electrical conductivity values that may be recorded in the future pharmaceutical systems in the context of their viscosity. The electrical conductivity, measured by a conductivity probe of k = 1.0 cm-1, and the dynamic viscosity of liposomal and non-liposomal systems with naproxen sodium, embedded into a methylcellulose hydrophilic gel (0.25%), were compared with data from preparations without naproxen sodium in a range reflecting the naproxen sodium concentrations 0.1·10-2-9.5·10-2 mol/L. The specific conductivity covered a 1.5 μS·cm-1-5616.0 μS·cm-1 range, whereas the viscosity ranged from 0.9 to 9.4 mPa·s. The naproxen sodium highly influenced the electrical conductivity, whereas the dynamic viscosity was a moderate factor. The observed phenomena may be ascribed to the high mobility of sodium ions recruited from naproxen sodium and the relatively low concentrations of applied methylcellulose. The assembly of lecithin in liposomes may have lowered the specific conductivity of the systems with naproxen sodium. These measurements will be further developed for implementation as simple assays of the concentrations of active pharmaceutical ingredient in release experiments of preparations proposed for dermatological applications.

Ionic liquid-mediated ethosome for transdermal delivery of insulin

Herein, we report ethosome (ET) formulations composed of a safe amount of 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphatidylcholine (DMPC)-based ionic liquid with various concentrations of ethanol as a carrier for the transdermal delivery of a high molecular weight drug, insulin. The Insulin-loaded ET vesicles exhibited long-term stability compared to conventional DMPC ETs, showing significantly higher drug encapsulation efficiency and increased skin permeation ability.

Development of a tadalafil transdermal formulation and evaluation of its ability to in vitro transdermal permeate using Strat-M® membrane

Tadalafil (TDF) has low water solubility, high intestinal permeability and belongs to the Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) Class II. Due to high intestinal permeability, only oral administration (tablets) and oral thin film formulations have been developed. Therefore, it is necessary to develop various formulations, such as external formulations and transdermal absorption formulations requested by patients. The purpose of this study is to improve the solubility and skin permeability of TDF, and to develop a novel transdermal formulation with secured stability over time. The research strategy is to determine solvents that will improve TDF solubility and to screen substances that will enhance TDF permeability. Skin penetration tests were simulated by using a Strat-M® membrane in Franz diffusion cell systems. The optimal formulation (F1, consisting of TDF/HDTMA-Br at a ratio of 1:10 [weight/weight] in DPG) observed the highest permeability compared to all formulations in PBS (pH 7.4). Changes in thermal property of F1 formulation was observed and maintained its stability over 12 months including drug content (μg/mL), appearance, pH, and permeation (μg/cm2). In conclusion, DPG played a supported role in improving both TDF solubilization and permeability, whereas HDTMA-Br played a key role in enhancing permeability. It is thought that these results will be supplemented in the future to conduct research and experiments on humans.

The characteristics and biological activity enhancements of melatonin encapsulations for skin care product applications

Melatonin (MLT) exhibits antioxidant, ultraviolet protection, anti-inflammatory, and anti-aging properties. However, its effectiveness is limited by instability, a short half-life, and incompatible absorption. In this research, we encapsulated melatonin (MLT) in transfersomes (MT) and niosomes (MN) to enhance their properties and investigate their effects through in vitro cell assays using murine macrophages cells and human foreskin fibroblasts cells. The vesicle morphology, vesicle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency (EE%), attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) spectra, along with in vitro release, permeation profiles, and stability study were also evaluated. The results showed that both encapsulations displayed spherical morphology at the nanometric scale, their great physical stability and provided an EE% range of 58-78%. The MLT incorporation into the vesicle was confirmed by the ATR-FTIR spectra. Additionally, the encapsulation' release profiles fitted with the Higuchi model, indicating controlled release of melatonin. Furthermore, MT showed greater permeability than MN and MS including melatonin deposition. In cell assays, MT exhibited significantly higher nitric oxide inhibition and stimulation of collagen compared to MN and MS. Therefore, MT demonstrated the highest possibility for anti-inflammatory and collagen-stimulating activities that could be applied in pharmaceutical or anti-aging cosmetic products.

Exploring the therapeutic potential of sodium deoxycholate tailored deformable-emulsomes of etodolac for effective management of arthritis

The current piece of research intends to evaluate the potential of combining etodolac with deformable-emulsomes, a flexible vesicular system, as a promising strategy for the topical therapy of arthritis. The developed carrier system featured nanometric dimensions (102 nm), an improved zeta potential (- 5.05 mV), sustained drug release (31.33%), and enhanced drug deposition (33.13%) of DE-gel vis-à-vis conventional system (10.34% and 14.71%). The amount of permeation of the developed nano formulation across skin layers was demonstrated through CLSM and dermatokinetics studies. The safety profile of deformable-emulsomes has been investigated through in vitro HaCaT cell culture studies and skin compliance studies. The efficacy of the DE-gel formulation was sevenfold higher in case of Xylene induced ear edema model and 2.2-folds in CFA induced arthritis model than that of group treated with conventional gel (p < 0.01). The main technological rationale lies in the use of phospholipid and sodium deoxycholate-based nanoscale flexible lipoidal vesicles, which effectively encapsulate drug molecules within their interiors. This encapsulation enhances the molecular interactions and facilitates the transportation of the drug molecule effectively to the target-site. Hence, these findings offer robust scientific evidence to support additional investigation into the potential utility of flexible vesicular systems as a promising drug delivery alternative for molecules of this nature.

Synthesis, Properties, and Biomedical Application of Dicationic Gemini Surfactants with Dodecane Spacer and Carbamate Fragments

A synthesis procedure and aggregation properties of a new homologous series of dicationic gemini surfactants with a dodecane spacer and two carbamate fragments (N,N'-dialkyl-N,N'-bis(2-(ethylcarbamoyloxy)ethyl)-N,N'-dimethyldodecan-1,6-diammonium dibromide, n-12-n(Et), where n = 10, 12, 14) were comprehensively described. The critical micelle concentrations of gemini surfactants were obtained using tensiometry, conductometry, spectrophotometry, and fluorimetry. The thermodynamic parameters of adsorption and micellization, i.e., maximum surface excess (Гmax), the surface area per surfactant molecule (Amin), degree of counterion binding (β), and Gibbs free energy of micellization (∆Gmic), were calculated. Functional activity of the surfactants, including the solubilizing capacity toward Orange OT and indomethacin, incorporation into the lipid bilayer, minimum inhibitory concentration, and minimum bactericidal and fungicidal concentrations, was determined. Synthesized gemini surfactants were further used for the modification of liposomes dual-loaded with α-tocopherol and donepezil hydrochloride for intranasal treatment of Alzheimer's disease. The obtained liposomes have high stability (more than 5 months), a significant positive charge (approximately + 40 mV), and a high degree of encapsulation efficiency toward rhodamine B, α-tocopherol, and donepezil hydrochloride. Korsmeyer-Peppas, Higuchi, and first-order kinetic models were used to process the in vitro release curves of donepezil hydrochloride. Intranasal administration of liposomes loaded with α-tocopherol and donepezil hydrochloride for 21 days prevented memory impairment and decreased the number of Aβ plaques by 37.6%, 40.5%, and 72.6% in the entorhinal cortex, DG, and CA1 areas of the hippocampus of the brain of transgenic mice with Alzheimer's disease model (APP/PS1) compared with untreated animals.

The Skin and Natural Cannabinoids-Topical and Transdermal Applications

The chemical constituents of the Cannabis plant known as cannabinoids have been extensively researched for their potential therapeutic benefits. The use of cannabinoids applied to the skin as a potential method for both skin-related benefits and systemic administration has attracted increasing interest in recent years. This review aims to present an overview of the most recent scientific research on cannabinoids used topically, including their potential advantages for treating a number of skin conditions like psoriasis, atopic dermatitis, and acne. Additionally, with a focus on the pharmacokinetics and security of this route of administration, we investigate the potential of the transdermal delivery of cannabinoids as a method of systemic administration. The review also discusses the restrictions and difficulties related to the application of cannabinoids on the skin, emphasizing the potential of topical cannabinoids as a promising route for both localized and systemic administration. More studies are required to fully comprehend the efficacy and safety of cannabinoids in various settings.

From Plants to Wound Dressing and Transdermal Delivery of Bioactive Compounds

Transdermal delivery devices and wound dressing materials are constantly improved and upgraded with the aim of enhancing their beneficial effects, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and cost effectiveness. Therefore, researchers in the field have shown an increasing interest in using natural compounds as constituents for such systems. Plants, as an important source of so-called "natural products" with an enormous variety and structural diversity that still exceeds the capacity of present-day sciences to define or even discover them, have been part of medicine since ancient times. However, their benefits are just at the beginning of being fully exploited in modern dermal and transdermal delivery systems. Thus, plant-based primary compounds, with or without biological activity, contained in gums and mucilages, traditionally used as gelling and texturing agents in the food industry, are now being explored as valuable and cost-effective natural components in the biomedical field. Their biodegradability, biocompatibility, and non-toxicity compensate for local availability and compositional variations. Also, secondary metabolites, classified based on their chemical structure, are being intensively investigated for their wide pharmacological and toxicological effects. Their impact on medicine is highlighted in detail through the most recent reported studies. Innovative isolation and purification techniques, new drug delivery devices and systems, and advanced evaluation procedures are presented.

Mitochondria-Targeted Delivery Strategy of Dual-Loaded Liposomes for Alzheimer's Disease Therapy

Liposomes modified with tetradecyltriphenylphosphonium bromide with dual loading of α-tocopherol and donepezil hydrochloride were successfully designed for intranasal administration. Physicochemical characteristics of cationic liposomes such as the hydrodynamic diameter, zeta potential, and polydispersity index were within the range from 105 to 115 nm, from +10 to +23 mV, and from 0.1 to 0.2, respectively. In vitro release curves of donepezil hydrochloride were analyzed using the Korsmeyer-Peppas, Higuchi, First-Order, and Zero-Order kinetic models. Nanocontainers modified with cationic surfactant statistically better penetrate into the mitochondria of rat motoneurons. Imaging of rat brain slices revealed the penetration of nanocarriers into the brain. Experiments on transgenic mice with an Alzheimer's disease model (APP/PS1) demonstrated that the intranasal administration of liposomes within 21 days resulted in enhanced learning abilities and a reduction in the formation rate of Aβ plaques in the entorhinal cortex and hippocampus of the brain.

DOE-Assisted Formulation, Optimization, and Characterization of Tioconazole-Loaded Transferosomal Hydrogel for the Effective Treatment of Atopic Dermatitis: In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation

The present study was performed to determine the therapeutic effects of tioconazole (Tz)-loaded novel transferosome carriers (TFs) for the treatment of atopic dermatitis (AD). Method: Tioconazole transferosomes suspension (TTFs) was formulated and optimized using a 32 factorial design. After that, the optimized batch of TTFs loaded into Carbopol 934 and sodium CMC was prepared with hydrogel and noted as TTFsH. Subsequently, it was evaluated for pH, spread ability, drug content, in vitro drug release, viscosity, in vivo scratching and erythema score, skin irritation, and histopathology study. Result: The optimized batch of TTFs (B4) showed the values of vesicle size, flux, and entrapment efficiency to be 171.40 ± 9.03 nm, 48.23 ± 0.42, and 93.89 ± 2.41, respectively. All batches of TTFsH showed sustained drug release for up to 24 h. The F2 optimized batch released Tz in an amount of 94.23 ± 0.98% with a flux of 47.23 ± 0.823 and followed the Higuchi kinetic model. The in vivo studies provided evidence that the F2 batch of TTFsH was able to treat atopic dermatitis (AD) by reducing the erythema and the scratching score compared to that of the marketed formulation (Candiderm cream, Glenmark). The histopathology study supported the result of the erythema and scratching score study with intact skin structure. It showed that a formulated low dose of TTFsH was safe and biocompatible to both the dermis and the epidermis layer of skin. Conclusion: Thus, a low dose of F2-TTFsH is a promising tool that effectively targeted the skin for the topical delivery of Tz to treat atopic dermatitis symptoms.

Current Advances in Lipid Nanosystems Intended for Topical and Transdermal Drug Delivery Applications

Skin delivery is an exciting and challenging field. It is a promising approach for effective drug delivery due to its ease of administration, ease of handling, high flexibility, controlled release, prolonged therapeutic effect, adaptability, and many other advantages. The main associated challenge, however, is low skin permeability. The skin is a healthy barrier that serves as the body's primary defence mechanism against foreign particles. New advances in skin delivery (both topical and transdermal) depend on overcoming the challenges associated with drug molecule permeation and skin irritation. These limitations can be overcome by employing new approaches such as lipid nanosystems. Due to their advantages (such as easy scaling, low cost, and remarkable stability) these systems have attracted interest from the scientific community. However, for a successful formulation, several factors including particle size, surface charge, components, etc. have to be understood and controlled. This review provided a brief overview of the structure of the skin as well as the different pathways of nanoparticle penetration. In addition, the main factors influencing the penetration of nanoparticles have been highlighted. Applications of lipid nanosystems for dermal and transdermal delivery, as well as regulatory aspects, were critically discussed.

Therapy of Organophosphate Poisoning via Intranasal Administration of 2-PAM-Loaded Chitosomes

Chitosan-decorated liposomes were proposed for the first time for the intranasal delivery of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) reactivator pralidoxime chloride (2-PAM) to the brain as a therapy for organophosphorus compounds (OPs) poisoning. Firstly, the chitosome composition based on phospholipids, cholesterol, chitosans (Cs) of different molecular weights, and its arginine derivative was developed and optimized. The use of the polymer modification led to an increase in the encapsulation efficiency toward rhodamine B (RhB; ~85%) and 2-PAM (~60%) by 20% compared to conventional liposomes. The formation of monodispersed and stable nanosized particles with a hydrodynamic diameter of up to 130 nm was shown using dynamic light scattering. The addition of the polymers recharged the liposome surface (from -15 mV to +20 mV), which demonstrates the successful deposition of Cs on the vesicles. In vitro spectrophotometric analysis showed a slow release of substrates (RhB and 2-PAM) from the nanocontainers, while the concentration and Cs type did not significantly affect the chitosome permeability. Flow cytometry and fluorescence microscopy qualitatively and quantitatively demonstrated the penetration of the developed chitosomes into normal Chang liver and M-HeLa cervical cancer cells. At the final stage, the ability of the formulated 2-PAM to reactivate brain AChE was assessed in a model of paraoxon-induced poisoning in an in vivo test. Intranasal administration of 2-PAM-containing chitosomes allows it to reach the degree of enzyme reactivation up to 35 ± 4%.

Complexation of Oligo- and Polynucleotides with Methoxyphenyl-Functionalized Imidazolium Surfactants

Interaction between cationic surfactants and nucleic acids attracts much attention due to the possibility of using such systems for gene delivery. Herein, the lipoplexes based on cationic surfactants with imidazolium head group bearing methoxyphenyl fragment (MPI-n, n = 10, 12, 14, 16) and nucleic acids (oligonucleotide and plasmid DNA) were explored. The complex formation was confirmed by dynamic/electrophoretic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, circular dichroism, and gel electrophoresis. The nanosized lipoplex formation (of about 100-200 nm), contributed by electrostatic, hydrophobic interactions, and intercalation mechanism, has been shown. Significant effects of the hydrocarbon tail length of surfactant and the type of nucleic acid on their interaction was revealed. The cytotoxic effect and transfection ability of lipoplexes studied were determined using M-HeLa, A549 cancer cell lines, and normal Chang liver cells. A selective reduced cytotoxic effect of the complexes on M-HeLa cancer cells was established, as well as a high ability of the systems to be transfected into cancer cells. MPI-n/DNA complexes showed a pronounced transfection activity equal to the commercial preparation Lipofectamine 3000. Thus, it has been shown that MPI-n surfactants are effective agents for nucleic acid condensation and can be considered as potential non-viral vectors for gene delivery.

Ultrasonic Film Rehydration Synthesis of Mixed Polylactide Micelles for Enzyme-Resistant Drug Delivery Nanovehicles

A facile technique for the preparation of mixed polylactide micelles from amorphous poly-D,L-lactide-block-polyethyleneglycol and crystalline amino-terminated poly-L-lactide is described. In comparison to the classical routine solvent substitution method, the ultrasonication assisted formation of polymer micelles allows shortening of the preparation time from several days to 15-20 min. The structure and morphology of mixed micelles were analyzed with the assistance of electron microscopy, dynamic and static light scattering and differential scanning calorimetery. The resulting polymer micelles have a hydrodynamic radius of about 150 nm and a narrow size distribution. The average molecular weight of micelles was found to be 2.1 × 107 and the aggregation number was calculated to be 6000. The obtained biocompatible particles were shown to possess low cytotoxicity, high colloid stability and high stability towards enzymatic hydrolysis. The possible application of mixed polylactide micelles as drug delivery vehicles was studied for the antitumor hydrophobic drug paclitaxel. The lethal concentration (LC50) of paclitaxel encapsulated in polylactide micelles was found to be 42 ± 4 µg/mL-a value equal to the LC50 of paclitaxel in the commercial drug Paclitaxel-Teva.

Oxime Therapy for Brain AChE Reactivation and Neuroprotection after Organophosphate Poisoning

One of the main problems in the treatment of poisoning with organophosphorus (OPs) inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is low ability of existing reactivators of AChE that are used as antidotes to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB). In this work, modified cationic liposomes were developed that can penetrate through the BBB and deliver the reactivator of AChE pralidoxime chloride (2-PAM) into the brain. Liposomes were obtained on the basis of phosphatidylcholine and imidazolium surfactants. To obtain the composition optimized in terms of charge, stability, and toxicity, the molar ratio of surfactant/lipid was varied. For the systems, physicochemical parameters, release profiles of the substrates (rhodamine B, 2-PAM), hemolytic activity and ability to cause hemagglutination were evaluated. Screening of liposome penetration through the BBB, analysis of 2-PAM pharmacokinetics, and in vivo AChE reactivation showed that modified liposomes readily pass into the brain and reactivate brain AChE in rats poisoned with paraoxon (POX) by 25%. For the first time, an assessment was made of the ability of imidazolium liposomes loaded with 2-PAM to reduce the death of neurons in the brains of mice. It was shown that intravenous administration of liposomal 2-PAM can significantly reduce POX-induced neuronal death in the hippocampus.