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Robinson GI, Li D, Wang B, Rahman T, Gerasymchuk M, Hudson D, Kovalchuk O, Kovalchuk I. Psilocybin and Eugenol Reduce Inflammation in Human 3D EpiIntestinal Tissue. Life (Basel) 2023; 13:2345. [PMID: 38137946 PMCID: PMC10744792 DOI: 10.3390/life13122345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Revised: 12/09/2023] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Inflammation plays a pivotal role in the development and progression of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), by contributing to tissue damage and exacerbating the immune response. The investigation of serotonin receptor 2A (5-HT2A) ligands and transient receptor potential (TRP) channel ligands is of significant interest due to their potential to modulate key inflammatory pathways, mitigate the pathological effects of inflammation, and offer new avenues for therapeutic interventions in IBD. This study investigates the anti-inflammatory effects of 5-HT2A ligands, including psilocybin, 4-AcO-DMT, and ketanserin, in combination with TRP channel ligands, including capsaicin, curcumin, and eugenol, on the inflammatory response induced by tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interferon (IFN)-γ in human 3D EpiIntestinal tissue. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to assess the expression of pro-inflammatory markers TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-6, IL-8, MCP-1, and GM-CSF. Our results show that psilocybin, 4-AcO-DMT, and eugenol significantly reduce TNF-α and IFN-γ levels, while capsaicin and curcumin decrease these markers to a lesser extent. Psilocybin effectively lowers IL-6 and IL-8 levels, but curcumin, capsaicin, and 4-AcO-DMT have limited effects on these markers. In addition, psilocybin can significantly decrease MCP-1 and GM-CSF levels. While ketanserin lowers IL-6 and GM-CSF levels, there are no effects seen on TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-8, or MCP-1. Although synergistic effects between 5-HT2A and TRP channel ligands are minimal in this study, the results provide further evidence of the anti-inflammatory effects of psilocybin and eugenol. Further research is needed to understand the mechanisms of action and the feasibility of using these compounds as anti-inflammatory therapies for conditions like IBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory Ian Robinson
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB T1K 3M4, Canada
| | - Dongping Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB T1K 3M4, Canada
| | - Bo Wang
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB T1K 3M4, Canada
| | - Tahiat Rahman
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB T1K 3M4, Canada
| | - Marta Gerasymchuk
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB T1K 3M4, Canada
| | - Darryl Hudson
- GoodCap Pharmaceuticals, 520 3rd Avenue SW, Suite 1900, Calgary, AB T2P 0R3, Canada
| | - Olga Kovalchuk
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB T1K 3M4, Canada
| | - Igor Kovalchuk
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB T1K 3M4, Canada
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2
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Pepe M, Hesami M, de la Cerda KA, Perreault ML, Hsiang T, Jones AMP. A journey with psychedelic mushrooms: From historical relevance to biology, cultivation, medicinal uses, biotechnology, and beyond. Biotechnol Adv 2023; 69:108247. [PMID: 37659744 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2023.108247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Revised: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 09/04/2023]
Abstract
Psychedelic mushrooms containing psilocybin and related tryptamines have long been used for ethnomycological purposes, but emerging evidence points to the potential therapeutic value of these mushrooms to address modern neurological, psychiatric health, and related disorders. As a result, psilocybin containing mushrooms represent a re-emerging frontier for mycological, biochemical, neuroscience, and pharmacology research. This work presents crucial information related to traditional use of psychedelic mushrooms, as well as research trends and knowledge gaps related to their diversity and distribution, technologies for quantification of tryptamines and other tryptophan-derived metabolites, as well as biosynthetic mechanisms for their production within mushrooms. In addition, we explore the current state of knowledge for how psilocybin and related tryptamines are metabolized in humans and their pharmacological effects, including beneficial and hazardous human health implications. Finally, we describe opportunities and challenges for investigating the production of psychedelic mushrooms and metabolic engineering approaches to alter secondary metabolite profiles using biotechnology integrated with machine learning. Ultimately, this critical review of all aspects related to psychedelic mushrooms represents a roadmap for future research efforts that will pave the way to new applications and refined protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Pepe
- Department of Plant Agriculture, University of Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Guelph, Canada
| | - Mohsen Hesami
- Department of Plant Agriculture, University of Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Guelph, Canada
| | - Karla A de la Cerda
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Guelph, Canada
| | - Melissa L Perreault
- Departments of Biomedical Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Tom Hsiang
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Guelph, Canada
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Chen X, Li J, Yu L, Maule F, Chang L, Gallant JA, Press DJ, Raithatha SA, Hagel JM, Facchini PJ. A cane toad (Rhinella marina) N-methyltransferase converts primary indolethylamines to tertiary psychedelic amines. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:105231. [PMID: 37690691 PMCID: PMC10570959 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.105231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2023] [Revised: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 09/03/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Psychedelic indolethylamines have emerged as potential medicines to treat several psychiatric pathologies. Natural sources of these compounds include 'magic mushrooms' (Psilocybe spp.), plants used to prepare ayahuasca, and toads. The skin and parotid glands of certain toads accumulate a variety of specialized metabolites including toxic guanidine alkaloids, lipophilic alkaloids, poisonous steroids, and hallucinogenic indolethylamines such as DMT, 5-methoxy-DMT, and bufotenin. The occurrence of psychedelics has contributed to the ceremonial use of toads, particularly among Mesoamerican peoples. Yet, the biosynthesis of psychedelic alkaloids has not been elucidated. Herein, we report a novel indolethylamine N-methyltransferase (RmNMT) from cane toad (Rhinella marina). The RmNMT sequence was used to identify a related NMT from the common toad, Bufo bufo. Close homologs from various frog species were inactive, suggesting a role for psychedelic indolethylamine biosynthesis in toads. Enzyme kinetic analyses and comparison with functionally similar enzymes showed that recombinant RmNMT was an effective catalyst and not product inhibited. The substrate promiscuity of RmNMT enabled the bioproduction of a variety of substituted indolethylamines at levels sufficient for purification, pharmacological screening, and metabolic stability assays. Since the therapeutic potential of psychedelics has been linked to activity at serotonergic receptors, we evaluated binding of derivatives at 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors. Primary amines exhibited enhanced affinity at the 5-HT1A receptor compared with tertiary amines. With the exception of 6-substituted derivatives, N,N-dimethylation also protected against catabolism by liver microsomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue Chen
- Discovery Group, Enveric Biosciences Inc, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Jing Li
- Discovery Group, Enveric Biosciences Inc, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Lisa Yu
- Discovery Group, Enveric Biosciences Inc, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Francesca Maule
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Limei Chang
- Discovery Group, Enveric Biosciences Inc, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | | | - David J Press
- Discovery Group, Enveric Biosciences Inc, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | | | - Jillian M Hagel
- Discovery Group, Enveric Biosciences Inc, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Peter J Facchini
- Discovery Group, Enveric Biosciences Inc, Calgary, Alberta, Canada; Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
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Pham DNK, Sackett NB, Chadeayne AR, Golen JA, Manke DR. Bis(4-acetoxy- N-ethyl- N- n-propyl-tryptammonium) fumarate-fumaric acid (1/1). IUCRDATA 2023; 8:x230779. [PMID: 37818476 PMCID: PMC10561228 DOI: 10.1107/s2414314623007794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 09/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The solid-state structure of the title salt/adduct (systemic name: bis-{[2-(4-acet-yloxy-1H-indol-3-yl)eth-yl](eth-yl)propyl-aza-nium} but-2-enedioate-(E)-butenedioic acid (1/1)), 2C17H25N2O2 +·C4H2O4 2-·C4H4O4, was determined by single-crystal X-ray diffraction. The asymmetric unit consists of a singly protonated tryptammonium cation, one half of a fumarate dianion and one half of a fumaric acid mol-ecule. In the crystal, the ions and mol-ecules are linked together in infinite chains propagating along [001] through a series of N-H⋯O and O-H⋯O hydrogen bonds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duyen N. K. Pham
- University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, 285 Old Westport Road, North Dartmouth, MA 02747, USA
| | - Nathan B. Sackett
- University of Washington, Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Center for Novel Therapeutics in Addiction Psychiatry, 1959 NE Pacific Street, Box 356560, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | | | - James A. Golen
- University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, 285 Old Westport Road, North Dartmouth, MA 02747, USA
| | - David R. Manke
- University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, 285 Old Westport Road, North Dartmouth, MA 02747, USA
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5
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Meyer M, Slot J. The evolution and ecology of psilocybin in nature. Fungal Genet Biol 2023; 167:103812. [PMID: 37210028 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2023.103812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 04/19/2023] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Fungi produce diverse metabolites that can have antimicrobial, antifungal, antifeedant, or psychoactive properties. Among these metabolites are the tryptamine-derived compounds psilocybin, its precursors, and natural derivatives (collectively referred to as psiloids), which have played significant roles in human society and culture. The high allocation of nitrogen to psiloids in mushrooms, along with evidence of convergent evolution and horizontal transfer of psilocybin genes, suggest they provide a selective benefit to some fungi. However, no precise ecological roles of psilocybin have been experimentally determined. The structural and functional similarities of psiloids to serotonin, an essential neurotransmitter in animals, suggest that they may enhance the fitness of fungi through interference with serotonergic processes. However, other ecological mechanisms of psiloids have been proposed. Here, we review the literature pertinent to psilocybin ecology and propose potential adaptive advantages psiloids may confer to fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Meyer
- Department of Plant Pathology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Environmental Science Graduate Program, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Center for Psychedelic Drug Research and Education, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
| | - Jason Slot
- Department of Plant Pathology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA; Center for Psychedelic Drug Research and Education, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
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Plazas E, Faraone N. Indole Alkaloids from Psychoactive Mushrooms: Chemical and Pharmacological Potential as Psychotherapeutic Agents. Biomedicines 2023; 11:biomedicines11020461. [PMID: 36830997 PMCID: PMC9953455 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11020461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuropsychiatric diseases such as depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress represent a substantial long-term challenge for the global health systems because of their rising prevalence, uncertain neuropathology, and lack of effective pharmacological treatments. The approved existing studies constitute a piece of strong evidence whereby psychiatric drugs have shown to have unpleasant side effects and reduction of sustained tolerability, impacting patients' quality of life. Thus, the implementation of innovative strategies and alternative sources of bioactive molecules for the search for neuropsychiatric agents are required to guarantee the success of more effective drug candidates. Psychotherapeutic use of indole alkaloids derived from magic mushrooms has shown great interest and potential as an alternative to the synthetic drugs currently used on the market. The focus on indole alkaloids is linked to their rich history, their use as pharmaceuticals, and their broad range of biological properties, collectively underscoring the indole heterocycle as significant in drug discovery. In this review, we aim to report the physicochemical and pharmacological characteristics of indole alkaloids, particularly those derived from magic mushrooms, highlighting the promising application of such active ingredients as safe and effective therapeutic agents for the treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Glatfelter GC, Pottie E, Partilla JS, Sherwood AM, Kaylo K, Pham DNK, Naeem M, Sammeta VR, DeBoer S, Golen JA, Hulley EB, Stove CP, Chadeayne AR, Manke DR, Baumann MH. Structure-Activity Relationships for Psilocybin, Baeocystin, Aeruginascin, and Related Analogues to Produce Pharmacological Effects in Mice. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci 2022; 5:1181-1196. [PMID: 36407948 PMCID: PMC9667540 DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.2c00177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
4-Phosphoryloxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (psilocybin) is a naturally occurring tertiary amine found in many mushroom species. Psilocybin is a prodrug for 4-hydroxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (psilocin), which induces psychedelic effects via agonist activity at the serotonin (5-HT) 2A receptor (5-HT2A). Several other 4-position ring-substituted tryptamines are present in psilocybin-containing mushrooms, including the secondary amine 4-phosphoryloxy-N-methyltryptamine (baeocystin) and the quaternary ammonium 4-phosphoryloxy-N,N,N-trimethyltryptamine (aeruginascin), but these compounds are not well studied. Here, we investigated the structure-activity relationships for psilocybin, baeocystin, and aeruginascin, as compared to their 4-acetoxy and 4-hydroxy analogues, using in vitro and in vivo methods. Broad receptor screening using radioligand binding assays in transfected cells revealed that secondary and tertiary tryptamines with either 4-acetoxy or 4-hydroxy substitutions display nanomolar affinity for most human 5-HT receptor subtypes tested, including the 5-HT2A and the serotonin 1A receptor (5-HT1A). The same compounds displayed affinity for 5-HT2A and 5-HT1A in mouse brain tissue in vitro and exhibited agonist efficacy in assays examining 5-HT2A-mediated calcium mobilization and β-arrestin 2 recruitment. In mouse experiments, only the tertiary amines psilocin, psilocybin, and 4-acetoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (psilacetin) induced head twitch responses (ED50 0.11-0.29 mg/kg) indicative of psychedelic-like activity. Head twitches were blocked by 5-HT2A antagonist pretreatment, supporting 5-HT2A involvement. Both secondary and tertiary amines decreased body temperature and locomotor activity at higher doses, the effects of which were blocked by 5-HT1A antagonist pretreatment. Across all assays, the pharmacological effects of 4-acetoxy and 4-hydroxy compounds were similar, and these compounds were more potent than their 4-phosphoryloxy counterparts. Importantly, psilacetin appears to be a prodrug for psilocin that displays substantial serotonin receptor activities of its own.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grant C. Glatfelter
- Designer
Drug Research Unit, National Institute on
Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, United States
| | - Eline Pottie
- Laboratory
of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical
Sciences, Ghent University, Campus Heymans, Ottergemsesteenweg
460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - John S. Partilla
- Designer
Drug Research Unit, National Institute on
Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, United States
| | | | - Kristi Kaylo
- Usona
Institute, Madison, Wisconsin 53711, United States
| | - Duyen N. K. Pham
- Department
of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University
of Massachusetts Dartmouth, North Dartmouth, Massachusetts 02747, United States
| | - Marilyn Naeem
- Department
of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University
of Massachusetts Dartmouth, North Dartmouth, Massachusetts 02747, United States
| | - Vamshikrishna Reddy Sammeta
- Department
of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University
of Massachusetts Dartmouth, North Dartmouth, Massachusetts 02747, United States
| | - Stacie DeBoer
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming 82071, United States
| | - James A. Golen
- Department
of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University
of Massachusetts Dartmouth, North Dartmouth, Massachusetts 02747, United States
| | - Elliott B. Hulley
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming 82071, United States
| | - Christophe P. Stove
- Laboratory
of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical
Sciences, Ghent University, Campus Heymans, Ottergemsesteenweg
460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | | | - David R. Manke
- Department
of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University
of Massachusetts Dartmouth, North Dartmouth, Massachusetts 02747, United States
| | - Michael H. Baumann
- Designer
Drug Research Unit, National Institute on
Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, United States
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