Biochemical and biophysical characterization of OmpG: A monomeric porin

Gating of β-Barrel Protein Pores, Porins, and Channels: An Old Problem with New Facets

β barrels are ubiquitous proteins in the outer membranes of mitochondria, chloroplasts, and Gram-negative bacteria. These transmembrane proteins (TMPs) execute a wide variety of tasks. For example, they can serve as transporters, receptors, membrane-bound enzymes, as well as adhesion, structural, and signaling elements. In addition, multimeric β barrels are common structural scaffolds among many pore-forming toxins. Significant progress has been made in understanding the functional, structural, biochemical, and biophysical features of these robust and versatile proteins. One frequently encountered fundamental trait of all β barrels is their voltage-dependent gating. This process consists of reversible or permanent conformational transitions between a large-conductance, highly permeable open state and a low-conductance, solute-restrictive closed state. Several intrinsic molecular mechanisms and environmental factors modulate this universal property of β barrels. This review article outlines the typical signatures of voltage-dependent gating. Moreover, we discuss recent developments leading to a better qualitative understanding of the closure dynamics of these TMPs.

Improving Single-Molecule Antibody Detection Selectivity through Optimization of Peptide Epitope Presentation in OmpG Nanopore

Outer membrane protein G (OmpG) is a monomeric porin found in Escherichia coli, which possesses seven flexible loops. OmpG has been engineered as a nanopore sensor, where its loops can host affinity epitopes for selective detection of biological molecules. In this study, we investigated various loop positions to incorporate a FLAG peptide antigen epitope in the most flexible loop 6 and tested the efficacy and sensitivity of these nanopore constructs in antibody detection. We observed an OmpG construct containing inserted FLAG sequence, which exhibited strong interaction with anti-FLAG antibodies in flow cytometry; however, it could not translate molecule interactions into a readable signal in current recordings. Further optimization of the peptide presentation strategy by replacing specific sections of loop 6 sequences with the FLAG tag created a construct capable of generating unique and distinct signals when interacting with various monoclonal or polyclonal anti-FLAG clones IgG antibodies in the mixture. The peptide display scheme demonstrated in this study can be generalized for the engineering of OmpG sensors, which can be used for screening and validating positive clones during antibody development, as well as for real-time quality control of cell cultures in monoclonal antibody production.

Role of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis ESX-4 Secretion System in Heme Iron Utilization and Pore Formation by PPE Proteins

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is transmitted through aerosols and primarily colonizes within the lung. The World Health Organization estimates that Mtb kills ~1.4 million people every year. A key aspect that makes Mtb such a successful pathogen is its ability to overcome iron limitation mounted by the host immune response. In our previous studies, we have shown that Mtb can utilize iron from heme, the largest source of iron in the human host, and that it uses two redundant heme utilization pathways. In this study, we show that the ESX-4 type VII secretion system (T7SS) is necessary for extracellular heme uptake into the Mtb cell through both heme utilization pathways. ESX-4 influences the secretion of the culture filtrate proteins Rv0125 and Rv1085c, which are also necessary for efficient heme utilization. We also discovered that deletion of the alternative sigma factor SigM significantly reduced Mtb heme utilization through both pathways and predict that SigM is a global positive regulator of core heme utilization genes of both pathways. Finally, we present the first direct evidence that some mycobacterial PPE (proline-proline-glutamate motif) proteins of the PPE protein family are pore-forming membrane proteins. Altogether, we identified core components of both Mtb Heme utilization pathways that were previously unknown and identified a novel channel-forming membrane protein of Mtb. IMPORTANCE M. tuberculosis (Mtb) is completely dependent on iron acquisition in the host to cause disease. The largest source of iron for Mtb in the human host is heme. Here, we show that the ancestral ESX-4 type VII secretion system is required for the efficient utilization of heme as a source of iron, which is an essential nutrient. This is another biological function identified for ESX-4 in Mtb, whose contribution to Mtb physiology is poorly understood. A most exciting finding is that some mycobacterial PPE (proline-proline-glutamate motif) proteins that have been implicated in the nutrient acquisition are membrane proteins that can form channels in a lipid bilayer. These observations have far-reaching implications because they support an emerging theme that PPE proteins can function as channel proteins in the outer mycomembrane for nutrient acquisition. Mtb has evolved a heme uptake system that is drastically different from all other known bacterial heme acquisition systems.

An Engineered OmpG Nanopore with Displayed Peptide Motifs for Single-Molecule Multiplex Protein Detection

Molecular detection via nanopore, achieved by monitoring changes in ionic current arising from analyte interaction with the sensor pore, is a promising technology for multiplex sensing development. Outer Membrane Protein G (OmpG), a monomeric porin possessing seven functionalizable loops, has been reported as an effective sensing platform for selective protein detection. Using flow cytometry to screen unfavorable constructs, we identified two OmpG nanopores with unique peptide motifs displayed in either loop 3 or 6, which also exhibited distinct analyte signals in single-channel current recordings. We exploited these motif-displaying loops concurrently to facilitate single-molecule multiplex protein detection in a mixture. We additionally report a strategy to increase sensor sensitivity via avidity motif display. These sensing schemes may be expanded to more sophisticated designs utilizing additional loops to increase multiplicity and sensitivity.

Fast slow folding of an outer membrane porin

SignificanceOuter membrane porins play a crucial role in processes as varied as energy production, photosynthesis, and nutrient transport. They act as the gatekeepers between a gram-negative bacterium and its environment. Understanding how these proteins fold and function is important in improving our understanding and control of these processes. Here we use single-molecule methods to help resolve the apparent differences between the fast folding expected on a molecular scale and the slow kinetics observed in ensemble measurements in the laboratory.

Single-molecule, hybridization-based strategies for short nucleic acids detection and recognition with nanopores

DNA nanotechnology has seen large developments over the last 30 years through the combination of detection and discovery of DNAs, and solid phase synthesis to increase the chemical functionalities on nucleic acids, leading to the emergence of novel and sophisticated in features, nucleic acids-based biopolymers. Arguably, nanopores developed for fast and direct detection of a large variety of molecules, are part of a revolutionary technological evolution which led to cheaper, smaller and considerably easier to use devices enabling DNA detection and sequencing at the single-molecule level. Through their versatility, the nanopore-based tools proved useful biomedicine, nanoscale chemistry, biology and physics, as well as other disciplines spanning materials science to ecology and anthropology. This mini-review discusses the progress of nanopore- and hybridization-based DNA detection, and explores a range of state-of-the-art applications afforded through the combination of certain synthetically-derived polymers mimicking nucleic acids and nanopores, for the single-molecule biophysics on short DNA structures.

Comparative Phenotypic Analysis of Anabaena sp. PCC 7120 Mutants of Porinlike Genes

Porins are essential for the viability of Gram-negative bacteria. They ensure the uptake of nutrients, can be involved in the maintenance of outer membrane integrity and define the antibiotic or drug resistance of organisms. The function and structure of porins in proteobacteria is well described, while their function in photoautotrophic cyanobacteria has not been systematically explored. We compared the domain architecture of nine putative porins in the filamentous cyanobacterium Anabaena sp. PCC 7120 and analyzed the seven candidates with predicted OprB-domain. Single recombinant mutants of the seven genes were created and their growth capacity under different conditions was analyzed. Most of the putative porins seem to be involved in the transport of salt and copper, as respective mutants were resistant to elevated concentrations of these substances. In turn, only the mutant of alr2231 was less sensitive to elevated zinc concentrations, while mutants of alr0834, alr4741 and all4499 were resistant to high manganese concentrations. Notably the mutant of alr4550 shows a high sensitivity against harmful compounds, which is indicative for a function related to the maintenance of outer membrane integrity. Moreover, the mutant of all5191 exhibited a phenotype which suggests either a higher nitrate demand or an inefficient nitrogen fixation. The dependency of porin membrane insertion on Omp85 proteins was tested exemplarily for Alr4550, and an enhanced aggregation of Alr4550 was observed in two omp85 mutants. The comparative analysis of porin mutants suggests that the proteins in parts perform distinct functions related to envelope integrity and solute uptake.

Biological Nanopores: Engineering on Demand

Nanopore-based sensing is a powerful technique for the detection of diverse organic and inorganic molecules, long-read sequencing of nucleic acids, and single-molecule analyses of enzymatic reactions. Selected from natural sources, protein-based nanopores enable rapid, label-free detection of analytes. Furthermore, these proteins are easy to produce, form pores with defined sizes, and can be easily manipulated with standard molecular biology techniques. The range of possible analytes can be extended by using externally added adapter molecules. Here, we provide an overview of current nanopore applications with a focus on engineering strategies and solutions.

Retarded Translocation of Nucleic Acids through α-Hemolysin Nanopore in the Presence of a Calcium Flux

Electrophysiological measurement of molecular translocation through a nanopore is the fundamental basis of nanopore sensing. Free translocation of nucleic acids however is normally so fast that the identities of the compounds are not clearly resolvable. Inspired by recent progress in fluorescence imaging based nanopore sensing, we found that during electrophysiology measurements, translocation of nucleic acids is also retarded whenever a calcium flux around the pore vicinity is established. The residence time of nucleic acids has been extended to tens of milliseconds, a result of the strong coupling between nucleic acids and free calcium ions. The methodology presented here is applicable to both DNAs and RNAs and is able to clearly discriminate between different RNA homopolymers. This offers new insights for calcium imaging based nanopore sensing and suggests a new strategy of electrophysiology-based nanopore sensing aimed at a retarded motion of nucleic acids.

The role of bacterial cell envelope structures in acid stress resistance in E. coli

Acid resistance (AR) is an indispensable mechanism for the survival of neutralophilic bacteria, such as Escherichia coli (E. coli) strains that survive in the gastrointestinal tract. E. coli acid tolerance has been extensively studied during past decades, with most studies focused on gene regulation and mechanisms. However, the role of cell membrane structure in the context of acid stress resistance has not been discussed in depth. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of the roles and mechanisms of the E. coli cell envelope from different membrane components, such as membrane proteins, fatty acids, chaperones, and proton-consuming systems, and particularly focus on the innovative effects revealed by recent studies. We hope that the information guides us to understand the bacterial survival strategies under acid stress and to further explore the AR regulatory mechanisms to prevent or treat E. coli and other related Gram-negative bacteria infection, or to enhance the AR of engineering E. coli.

A Nanopore Approach for Analysis of Caspase-7 Activity in Cell Lysates

Caspases are an important protease family that coordinate inflammation and programmed cell death. Two closely related caspases, caspase-3 and caspase-7, exhibit largely overlapping substrate specificities. Assessing their proteolytic activities individually has therefore proven extremely challenging. Here, we constructed an outer membrane protein G (OmpG) nanopore with a caspase substrate sequence DEVDG grafted into one of the OmpG loops. Cleavage of the substrate sequence in the nanopore by caspase-7 generated a characteristic signal in the current recording of the OmpG nanopore that allowed the determination of the activity of caspase-7 in Escherichia coli cell lysates. Our approach may provide a framework for the activity-based profiling of proteases that share highly similar substrate specificity spectrums.

Manipulation of charge distribution in the arginine and glutamate clusters of the OmpG pore alters sugar specificity and ion selectivity

OmpG is a general diffusion pore in the E. coli outer membrane with a molecular architecture comprising a 14-stranded β-barrel scaffold and unique structural features. In contrast to other non-specific porins, OmpG lacks a central constriction zone and has an exceptionally wide pore diameter of about 13 Å. The equatorial plane of OmpG harbors an annulus of four alternating basic and acidic patches whose function is only poorly characterized. We have investigated the role of charge distribution for ion selectivity and sugar transport with the help of OmpG variants mutated in the annulus. Substituting the glutamate residues of the annulus for histidines or alanines led to a strong reduction in cation selectivity. Replacement of the glutamates in the annulus by histidine residues also disfavored the passage of pentoses and hexoses relative to disaccharides. Our results demonstrate that despite the wide pore diameter, an annulus only consisting of two opposing basic patches confers reduced cation and monosaccharide transport compared to OmpG wild type. Furthermore, randomization of charged residues in the annulus had the potential to abolish pH-dependency of sugar transport. Our results indicate that E¹⁵, E³¹, R⁹², R¹¹¹ and R²¹¹ in the annulus form electrostatic interactions with R²²⁸, E²²⁹ and D²³² in loop L6 that influence pH-dependency of sugar transport.

Quiet Outer Membrane Protein G (OmpG) Nanopore for Biosensing

Interest in nanopore technology has been growing due to nanopores' unique capabilities in small molecule sensing, measurement of protein folding, and low-cost DNA and RNA sequencing. The E. coli β-barrel outer membrane protein OmpG is an excellent alternative to other protein nanopores because of its single polypeptide chain. However, the flexibility of its extracellular loops ultimately limits applications in traditional biosensing. We deleted several residues in and near loop 6 of OmpG. The dynamic structure of the new construct determined by NMR shows that loops 1, 2, 6, and 7 have reduced flexibilities compared to those of wild-type. Electrophysiological measurements show that the new design virtually eliminates flickering between open and closed states across a wide pH range. Modification of the pore lumen with a copper chelating moiety facilitates detection of small molecules. As proof of concept, we demonstrate concurrent single-molecule biosensing of glutamate and adenosine triphosphate.

Probing membrane protein properties using droplet interface bilayers

IMPACT STATEMENT

The paper presents a comprehensive review of integral membrane protein studies utilizing droplet interface bilayers. Droplet interface bilayers are a novel method of constructing artificial lipid bilayers with enhanced stability and physicochemical complexity compared to existing methods. Their unique morphology also suggests applications in the construction of synthetic biological systems and protocells. As well as serving as a guide to in vitro membrane protein functional studies using droplet interface bilayers in the literature to date, a novel in vitro study of a flippase protein in a droplet interface bilayer is presented.

Single-Molecule Force Spectroscopy of Transmembrane β-Barrel Proteins

Single-molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS) has been widely applied to study the mechanical unfolding and folding of transmembrane proteins. Here, we review the recent progress in characterizing bacterial and human transmembrane β-barrel proteins by SMFS. First, we describe the mechanical unfolding of transmembrane β-barrels, which follows a general mechanism dictated by the sequential unfolding and extraction of individual β-strands and β-hairpins from membranes. Upon force relaxation, the unfolded polypeptide can insert stepwise into the membrane as single β-strands or β-hairpins to fold as the native β-barrel. The refolding can be followed at a high spatial and temporal resolution, showing that small β-barrels are able to fold without assistance, whereas large and complex β-barrels require chaperone cofactors. Applied in the dynamic mode, SMFS can quantify the kinetic and mechanical properties of single β-hairpins and reveal complementary insight into the membrane protein structure and function relationship. We further outline the challenges that SMFS experiments must overcome for a comprehensive understanding of the folding and function of transmembrane β-barrel proteins.

Lipid binding attenuates channel closure of the outer membrane protein OmpF

Outer-membrane porins are often considered as passive conduits of small molecules across lipid bilayers. Using native mass spectrometry experiments we identify a pH-sensitive lipid-binding mechanism of outer membrane porin F, which enables increased threading of a colicin-derived peptide through open channels. Supported by molecular dynamics simulations and channel recording experiments, we posit that this mechanism attenuates channel opening in response to changes in environmental conditions, specifically pH. These findings have important consequences for mass spectrometry experiments, wherein the role of charge is often overlooked, and they also could help provide understanding of antibiotics that gain access to Gram-negative bacteria through porin-mediated pathways.

Strong interactions between lipids and proteins occur primarily through association of charged headgroups and amino acid side chains, rendering the protonation status of both partners important. Here we use native mass spectrometry to explore lipid binding as a function of charge of the outer membrane porin F (OmpF). We find that binding of anionic phosphatidylglycerol (POPG) or zwitterionic phosphatidylcholine (POPC) to OmpF is sensitive to electrospray polarity while the effects of charge are less pronounced for other proteins in outer or mitochondrial membranes: the ferripyoverdine receptor (FpvA) or the voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC). Only marginal charge-induced differences were observed for inner membrane proteins: the ammonia channel (AmtB) or the mechanosensitive channel. To understand these different sensitivities, we performed an extensive bioinformatics analysis of membrane protein structures and found that OmpF, and to a lesser extent FpvA and VDAC, have atypically high local densities of basic and acidic residues in their lipid headgroup-binding regions. Coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations, in mixed lipid bilayers, further implicate changes in charge by demonstrating preferential binding of anionic POPG over zwitterionic POPC to protonated OmpF, an effect not observed to the same extent for AmtB. Moreover, electrophysiology and mass-spectrometry–based ligand-binding experiments, at low pH, show that POPG can maintain OmpF channels in open conformations for extended time periods. Since the outer membrane is composed almost entirely of anionic lipopolysaccharide, with similar headgroup properties to POPG, such anionic lipid binding could prevent closure of OmpF channels, thereby increasing access of antibiotics that use porin-mediated pathways.

Understanding antibiotic resistance via outer membrane permeability

Collective antibiotic drug resistance is a global threat, especially with respect to Gram-negative bacteria. The low permeability of the bacterial outer cell wall has been identified as a challenging barrier that prevents a sufficient antibiotic effect to be attained at low doses of the antibiotic. The Gram-negative bacterial cell envelope comprises an outer membrane that delimits the periplasm from the exterior milieu. The crucial mechanisms of antibiotic entry via outer membrane includes general diffusion porins (Omps) responsible for hydrophilic antibiotics and lipid-mediated pathway for hydrophobic antibiotics. The protein and lipid arrangements of the outer membrane have had a strong impact on the understanding of bacteria and their resistance to many types of antibiotics. Thus, one of the current challenges is effective interpretation at the molecular basis of the outer membrane permeability. This review attempts to develop a state of knowledge pertinent to Omps and their effective role in solute influx. Moreover, it aims toward further understanding and exploration of prospects to improve our knowledge of physicochemical limitations that direct the translocation of antibiotics via bacterial outer membrane.

Mechanism of OmpG pH-Dependent Gating from Loop Ensemble and Single Channel Studies

Outer membrane protein G (OmpG) from Escherichia coli has exhibited pH-dependent gating that can be employed by bacteria to alter the permeability of their outer membranes in response to environmental changes. We developed a computational model, Protein Topology of Zoetic Loops (Pretzel), to investigate the roles of OmpG extracellular loops implicated in gating. The key interactions predicted by our model were verified by single-channel recording data. Our results indicate that the gating equilibrium is primarily controlled by an electrostatic interaction network formed between the gating loop and charged residues in the lumen. The results shed light on the mechanism of OmpG gating and will provide a fundamental basis for the engineering of OmpG as a nanopore sensor. Our computational Pretzel model could be applied to other outer membrane proteins that contain intricate dynamic loops that are functionally important.

A light-triggered transmembrane porin

Porins are ideal model systems for channel engineering. Here, we present a photocaged diethylaminocoumarin (DEACM) hybrid of the transmembrane porin OmpG.

Structure of outer membrane protein G in lipid bilayers

β-barrel proteins mediate nutrient uptake in bacteria and serve vital functions in cell signaling and adhesion. For the 14-strand outer membrane protein G of Escherichia coli, opening and closing is pH-dependent. Different roles of the extracellular loops in this process were proposed, and X-ray and solution NMR studies were divergent. Here, we report the structure of outer membrane protein G investigated in bilayers of E. coli lipid extracts by magic-angle-spinning NMR. In total, 1847 inter-residue ¹H–¹H and ¹³C–¹³C distance restraints, 256 torsion angles, but no hydrogen bond restraints are used to calculate the structure. The length of β-strands is found to vary beyond the membrane boundary, with strands 6–8 being the longest and the extracellular loops 3 and 4 well ordered. The site of barrel closure at strands 1 and 14 is more disordered than most remaining strands, with the flexibility decreasing toward loops 3 and 4. Loop 4 presents a well-defined helix.

Porins, like OmpG, are embedded in the outer membrane of bacteria and facilitate uptake and secretion of nutrients and ions. Here the authors present a protocol for solid state NMR structure determination of proteins larger than 25 kDa and use it to structurally characterize membrane embedded OmpG.

Identification and Functional Characterization of a Novel OprD-like Chitin Uptake Channel in Non-chitinolytic Bacteria

Chitoporin from the chitinolytic marine Vibrio has been characterized as a trimeric OmpC-like channel responsible for effective chitin uptake. In this study we describe the identification and characterization of a novel OprD-like chitoporin (so-called EcChiP) from Escherichia coli The gene was identified, cloned, and functionally expressed in the Omp-deficient E. coli BL21 (Omp8) Rosetta strain. On size exclusion chromatography, EcChiP had an apparent native molecular mass of 50 kDa, as predicted by amino acid sequencing and mass analysis, confirming that the protein is a monomer. Black lipid membrane reconstitution demonstrated that EcChiP could readily form stable, monomeric channels in artificial phospholipid membranes, with an average single channel conductance of 0.55 ± 0.01 nanosiemens and a slight preference for cations. Single EcChiP channels showed strong specificity, interacting with long chain chitooligosaccharides but not with maltooligosaccharides. Liposome swelling assays indicated the bulk permeation of neutral monosaccharides and showed the size exclusion limit of EcChiP to be ∼200-300 Da for small permeants that pass through by general diffusion while allowing long chain chitooligosaccharides to pass through by a facilitated diffusion process. Taking E. coli as a model, we offer the first evidence that non-chitinolytic bacteria can activate a quiescent ChiP gene to express a functional chitoporin, enabling them to take up chitooligosaccharides for metabolism as an immediate source of energy.

A functional NMR for membrane proteins: dynamics, ligand binding, and allosteric modulation

By nature of conducting ions, transporting substrates and transducing signals, membrane channels, transporters and receptors are expected to exhibit intrinsic conformational dynamics. It is therefore of great interest and importance to understand the various properties of conformational dynamics acquired by these proteins, for example, the relative population of states, exchange rate, conformations of multiple states, and how small molecule ligands modulate the conformational exchange. Because small molecule binding to membrane proteins can be weak and/or dynamic, structural characterization of these effects is very challenging. This review describes several NMR studies of membrane protein dynamics, ligand-induced conformational rearrangements, and the effect of ligand binding on the equilibrium of conformational exchange. The functional significance of the observed phenomena is discussed.

Selective Detection of Protein Homologues in Serum Using an OmpG Nanopore

Outer membrane protein G is a monomeric β-barrel porin that has seven flexible loops on its extracellular side. Conformational changes of these labile loops induce gating spikes in current recordings that we exploited as the prime sensing element for protein detection. The gating characteristics, open probability, frequency, and current decrease, provide rich information for analyte identification. Here, we show that two antibiotin antibodies each induced a distinct gating pattern, which allowed them to be readily detected and simultaneously discriminated by a single OmpG nanopore in the presence of fetal bovine serum. Our results demonstrate the feasibility of directly profiling proteins in real-world samples with minimal or no sample pretreatment.

Electrostatic Interactions between OmpG Nanopore and Analyte Protein Surface Can Distinguish between Glycosylated Isoforms

The flexible loops decorating the entrance of OmpG nanopore move dynamically during ionic current recording. The gating caused by these flexible loops changes when a target protein is bound. The gating is characterized by parameters including frequency, duration, and open-pore current, and these features combine to reveal the identity of a specific analyte protein. Here, we show that OmpG nanopore equipped with a biotin ligand can distinguish glycosylated and deglycosylated isoforms of avidin by their differences in surface charge. Our studies demonstrate that the direct interaction between the nanopore and analyte surface, induced by the electrostatic attraction between the two molecules, is essential for protein isoform detection. Our technique is remarkably sensitive to the analyte surface, which may provide a useful tool for glycoprotein profiling.

Purification, Refolding, and Crystallization of the Outer Membrane Protein OmpG from Escherichia coli

OmpG is a pore-forming protein from E. coli outer membranes. Unlike the classical outer membrane porins, which are trimers, the OmpG channel is a monomeric β-barrel made of 14 antiparallel β-strands with short periplasmic turns and longer extracellular loops. The channel activity of OmpG is pH dependent and the channel is gated by the extracellular loop L6. At neutral/high pH, the channel is open and permeable for substrate molecules with a size up to 900 Da. At acidic pH, loop L6 folds across the channel and blocks the pore. The channel blockage at acidic pH appears to be triggered by the protonation of a histidine pair on neighboring β-strands, which repel one another, resulting in the rearrangement of loop L6 and channel closure. OmpG was purified by refolding from inclusion bodies and crystallized in two and three dimensions. Crystallization and analysis by electron microscopy and X-ray crystallography revealed the fundamental mechanisms essential for the channel activity.

Resolved single-molecule detection of individual species within a mixture of anti-biotin antibodies using an engineered monomeric nanopore

Oligomeric protein nanopores with rigid structures have been engineered for the purpose of sensing a wide range of analytes including small molecules and biological species such as proteins and DNA. We chose a monomeric β-barrel porin, OmpG, as the platform from which to derive the nanopore sensor. OmpG is decorated with seven flexible loops that move dynamically to create a distinct gating pattern when ionic current passes through the pore. Biotin was chemically tethered to the most flexible one of these loops. The gating characteristic of the loop's movement in and out of the porin was substantially altered by analyte protein binding. The gating characteristics of the pore with bound targets were remarkably sensitive to molecular identity, even providing the ability to distinguish between homologues within an antibody mixture. A total of five gating parameters were analyzed for each analyte to create a unique fingerprint for each biotin-binding protein. Our exploitation of gating noise as a molecular identifier may allow more sophisticated sensor design, while OmpG's monomeric structure greatly simplifies nanopore production.

Proteome-wide subcellular topologies of E. coli polypeptides database (STEPdb)

Cell compartmentalization serves both the isolation and the specialization of cell functions. After synthesis in the cytoplasm, over a third of all proteins are targeted to other subcellular compartments. Knowing how proteins are distributed within the cell and how they interact is a prerequisite for understanding it as a whole. Surface and secreted proteins are important pathogenicity determinants. Here we present the STEP database (STEPdb) that contains a comprehensive characterization of subcellular localization and topology of the complete proteome of Escherichia coli. Two widely used E. coli proteomes (K-12 and BL21) are presented organized into thirteen subcellular classes. STEPdb exploits the wealth of genetic, proteomic, biochemical, and functional information on protein localization, secretion, and targeting in E. coli, one of the best understood model organisms. Subcellular annotations were derived from a combination of bioinformatics prediction, proteomic, biochemical, functional, topological data and extensive literature re-examination that were refined through manual curation. Strong experimental support for the location of 1553 out of 4303 proteins was based on 426 articles and some experimental indications for another 526. Annotations were provided for another 320 proteins based on firm bioinformatic predictions. STEPdb is the first database that contains an extensive set of peripheral IM proteins (PIM proteins) and includes their graphical visualization into complexes, cellular functions, and interactions. It also summarizes all currently known protein export machineries of E. coli K-12 and pairs them, where available, with the secretory proteins that use them. It catalogs the Sec- and TAT-utilizing secretomes and summarizes their topological features such as signal peptides and transmembrane regions, transmembrane topologies and orientations. It also catalogs physicochemical and structural features that influence topology such as abundance, solubility, disorder, heat resistance, and structural domain families. Finally, STEPdb incorporates prediction tools for topology (TMHMM, SignalP, and Phobius) and disorder (IUPred) and implements the BLAST2STEP that performs protein homology searches against the STEPdb.

Structure-based engineering of a minimal porin reveals loop-independent channel closure

Porins, like outer membrane protein G (OmpG) of Escherichia coli, are ideal templates among ion channels for protein and chemical engineering because of their robustness and simple architecture. OmpG shows fast transitions between open and closed states, which were attributed to loop 6 (L6). As flickering limits single-channel-based applications, we pruned L6 by either 8 or 12 amino acids. While the open probabilities of both L6 variants resemble that of native OmpG, their gating frequencies were reduced by 63 and 81%, respectively. Using the 3.2 Å structure of the shorter L6 variant in the open state, we engineered a minimal porin (220 amino acids), where all remaining extramembranous loops were truncated. Unexpectedly, this minimized porin still exhibited gating, but it was 5-fold less frequent than in OmpG. The residual gating of the minimal pore is hence independent of L6 rearrangements and involves narrowing of the ion conductance pathway most probably driven by global stretching-flexing deformations of the membrane-embedded β-barrel.

Control of the conductance of engineered protein nanopores through concerted loop motions

Protein nanopores have attracted much interest for nucleic acid sequencing, chemical sensing, and protein folding at the single molecule level. The outer membrane protein OmpG from E. coli stands out because it forms a nanopore from a single polypeptide chain. This property allows the separate engineering of each of the seven extracellular loops that control access to the pore. The longest of these loops, loop 6, has been recognized as the main gating loop that closes the pore at low pH values and opens it at high pH values. A method was devised to pin each of the loops to the embedding membrane and measure the single-pore conductances of the resulting constructs. The electrophysiological and complementary NMR measurements show that the pinning of individual loops alters the structure and dynamics of neighboring and distant loops in a correlated fashion. Pinning loop 6 generates a constitutively open pore and patterns of concerted loop motions control access to the OmpG nanopore.

NMR-based conformational ensembles explain pH-gated opening and closing of OmpG channel

The outer membrane protein G (OmpG) is a monomeric 33 kDa 14-stranded β-barrel membrane protein functioning as a nonspecific porin for the uptake of oligosaccharides in Escherichia coli. Two different crystal structures of OmpG obtained at different values of pH suggest a pH-gated pore opening mechanism. In these structures, extracellular loop 6 extends away from the barrel wall at neutral pH but is folded back into the pore lumen at low pH, blocking transport through the pore. Loop 6 was invisible in a previously published solution NMR structure of OmpG in n-dodecylphosphocholine micelles, presumably due to conformational exchange on an intermediate NMR time scale. Here we present an NMR paramagnetic relaxation enhancement (PRE)-based approach to visualize the conformational dynamics of loop 6 and to calculate conformational ensembles that explain the pH-gated opening and closing of the OmpG channel. The different loop conformers detected by the PRE ensemble calculations were validated by disulfide cross-linking of strategically engineered cysteines and electrophysiological single channel recordings. The results indicate a more dynamically regulated channel opening and closing than previously thought and reveal additional membrane-associated conformational ensembles at pH 6.3 and 7.0. We anticipate this approach to be generally applicable to detect and characterize functionally important conformational ensembles of membrane proteins.

Does the lipid environment impact the open-state conductance of an engineered β-barrel protein nanopore?

Using rational membrane protein design, we were recently able to obtain a β-barrel protein nanopore that was robust under an unusually broad range of experimental circumstances. This protein nanopore was based upon the native scaffold of the bacterial ferric hydroxamate uptake component A (FhuA) of Escherichia coli. In this work, we expanded the examinations of the open-state current of this engineered protein nanopore, also called FhuA ΔC/Δ4L, employing an array of lipid bilayer systems that contained charged and uncharged as well as conical and cylindrical lipids. Remarkably, systematical single-channel analysis of FhuA ΔC/Δ4L indicated that most of its biophysical features, such as the unitary conductance and the stability of the open-state current, were not altered under the conditions tested in this work. However, electrical recordings at high transmembrane potentials revealed that the presence of conical phospholipids within the bilayer catalyzes the first, stepwise current transition of the FhuA ΔC/Δ4L protein nanopore to a lower-conductance open state. This study reinforces the stability of the open-state current of the engineered FhuA ΔC/Δ4L protein nanopore under various experimental conditions, paving the way for further critical developments in biosensing and molecular biomedical diagnosis.

Isolation, functional characterization and crystallization of Aq_1259, an outer membrane protein with porin features, from Aquifex aeolicus

The "hypothetical protein" Aq_1259 was identified by mass spectrometry and purified from native membranes of Aquifex aeolicus. It is a 49.4kDa protein, highly homologous (>52% identity) to several conserved hypothetical proteins from other bacteria. However, none of these proteins has been characterized using biochemical or electrophysiological techniques. Based on the sequence and circular dichroism spectroscopy, the structure of Aq_1259 is predicted to be a β-barrel with 16 β-strands. The strands with loops and turns are distributed evenly through the entire sequence. The function of Aq_1259 was analyzed after incorporation into a lipid bilayer. Electrophysiological measurements revealed a pore that has a basic stationary conductance of 0.48 ± 0.038nS in a buffer with 0.5M NaH₂PO₄ at pH 6.5 and 0.2 ± 0.015nS in a buffer with 0.5M NaCl at pH 6.5. Superimposed on this is a fluctuating conductance of similar amplitude. Aq_1259 could be crystallized. The crystals diffract to a resolution of 3.4Å and belong to space group I222 with cell dimensions of a=138.3Å, b=144.6Å, c=151.8Å.

In situ opening/closing of OmpG from E. coli and the splitting of β-sheet signals in ATR-FTIR spectroscopy

The pH dependent opening and closure of Escherichia coli OmpG is driven by the formation and breaking of hydrogen bridges in β-strands S11-S13. We have investigated the in situ secondary structural changes of OmpG with ATR-FTIR difference spectroscopy in order to detect the signals associated with the newly established interactions. Curve-fitting of OmpG in two pH conditions revealed the splitting and shifting of β-sheet signals upon opening of the channel. Besides secondary structure changes, there are also amino acid side chain signals that play active role in opening/closing of the channel. An interaction among positively charged arginines and negatively charged aspartic and glutamic acid residues is suggested upon closure of the channel while this interaction is abolished when the channel opens at higher pH.

Dual energy landscape: the functional state of the β-barrel outer membrane protein G molds its unfolding energy landscape

We applied dynamic single-molecule force spectroscopy to quantify the parameters (free energy of activation and distance of the transition state from the folded state) characterizing the energy barriers in the unfolding energy landscape of the outer membrane protein G (OmpG) from Escherichia coli. The pH-dependent functional switching of OmpG directs the protein along different regions on the unfolding energy landscape. The two functional states of OmpG take the same unfolding pathway during the sequential unfolding of β-hairpins I-IV. After the initial unfolding events, the unfolding pathways diverge. In the open state, the unfolding of β-hairpin V in one step precedes the unfolding of β-hairpin VI. In the closed state, β-hairpin V and β-strand S11 with a part of extracellular loop L6 unfold cooperatively, and subsequently β-strand S12 unfolds with the remaining loop L6. These two unfolding pathways in the open and closed states join again in the last unfolding step of β-hairpin VII. Also, the conformational change from the open to the closed state witnesses a rigidified extracellular gating loop L6. Thus, a change in the conformational state of OmpG not only bifurcates its unfolding pathways but also tunes its mechanical properties for optimum function.

Robust properties of membrane-embedded connector channel of bacterial virus phi29 DNA packaging motor

Biological systems contain highly-ordered macromolecular structures with diverse functions, inspiring their utilization in nanotechnology. A motor allows linear dsDNA viruses to package their genome into a preformed procapsid. The central component of the motor is the portal connector that acts as a pathway for the translocation of dsDNA. The elegant design of the connector and its channel motivates its application as an artificial nanopore (Nature Nanotechnology, 4, 765-772). Herein, we demonstrate the robust characteristics of the connector of the bacteriophage phi29 DNA packaging motor by single pore electrophysiological assays. The conductance of each pore is almost identical and is perfectly linear with respect to the applied voltage. Numerous transient current blockade events induced by dsDNA are consistent with the dimensions of the channel and dsDNA. Furthermore, the connector channel is stable under a wide range of experimental conditions including high salt and pH 2-12. The robust properties of the connector nanopore made it possible to develop a simple reproducible approach for connector quantification. The precise number of connectors in each sheet of the membrane was simply derived from the slopes of the plot of voltage against current. Such quantifications led to a reliable real time counting of DNA passing through the channel. The fingerprint of DNA translocation in this system has provided a new tool for future biophysical and physicochemical characterizations of DNA transportation, motion, and packaging.

pH-dependent interactions guide the folding and gate the transmembrane pore of the beta-barrel membrane protein OmpG

The physical interactions that switch the functional state of membrane proteins are poorly understood. Previously, the pH-gating conformations of the beta-barrel forming outer membrane protein G (OmpG) from Escherichia coli have been solved. When the pH changes from neutral to acidic the flexible extracellular loop L6 folds into and closes the OmpG pore. Here, we used single-molecule force spectroscopy to structurally localize and quantify the interactions that are associated with the pH-dependent closure. At acidic pH, we detected a pH-dependent interaction at loop L6. This interaction changed the (un)folding of loop L6 and of beta-strands 11 and 12, which connect loop L6. All other interactions detected within OmpG were unaffected by changes in pH. These results provide a quantitative and mechanistic explanation of how pH-dependent interactions change the folding of a peptide loop to gate the transmembrane pore. They further demonstrate how the stability of OmpG is optimized so that pH changes modify only those interactions necessary to gate the transmembrane pore.

Amyloid peptide pores and the beta sheet conformation

Over 20 clinical syndromes have been described as amyloid diseases. Pathologically, these illnesses are characterized by the deposition in various tissues of amorphous, Congo red stainingdeposits, referred to as amyloid. Under polarizing light microscopy, these deposits exhibit characteristic green birefringence. X-ray diffraction reveals cross-beta structure of extended amyloid fibrils. Although there is always a major protein in amyloid deposits, the predominant protein differs in each ofthe clinical syndromes. All the proteins exhibit the characteristic nonnative beta-sheet state. These proteins aggregate spontaneously into extended fibrils and precipitate out of solution. At least a dozen of these peptides have been demonstrated to be capable of channel formation in lipid bilayers and it has been proposed that this represents a pathogenic mechanism. Remarkably, the channels formed by these various peptides exhibit a number of common properties including irreversible, spontaneous insertion into membranes, production oflarge, heterogeneous single-channel conductances, relatively poor ion selectivity, inhibition of channel formation by Congo red and related dyes and blockade of inserted channels by zinc. In vivo amyloid peptides have been shown to disrupt intracellular calcium regulation, plasma membrane potential, mitochondrial membrane potential and function and long-term potentiation in neurons. Amyloid peptides also cause cytotoxicity. Formation of the beta sheet conformation from native protein structures can be induced by high protein concentrations, metal binding, acidic pH, amino acid mutation and interaction with lipid membranes. Most amyloid peptides interact strongly with membranes and this interaction is enhanced by conditions which favor beta-sheet formation. Formation of pores in these illnesses appears to be a spontaneous process and available evidence suggests several steps are critical. First, destabilization of the native structure and formation of the beta-sheet conformation must occur. This may occur in solution or may be facilitated by contact with lipid membranes. Oligomerization of the amyloid protein is then mediated by the beta strands. Amyloid monomers and extended fibrils appear to have little potential for toxicity whereas there is much evidence implicating amyloid oligomers of intermediate size in the pathogenesis of amyloid disease. Insertion of the oligomer appears to take place spontaneously although there may be a contribution of acidic pH and/or membrane potential. Very little is known about the structure of amyloid pores, but given that the amyloid peptides must acquire beta-sheet conformation to aggregate and polymerize, it has been hypothesized that amyloid pores may in fact be beta-sheet barrels similar to the pores formed by alpha-latrotoxin, Staphylococcal alpha-hemolysin, anthrax toxin and clostridial perfringolysin.

Orientation of the monomeric porin OmpG in planar lipid bilayers

Outer membrane protein G (OmpG) is a non-selective porin from Escherichia coli. OmpG is a monomer, which makes it unusual among porins, and suggests that it may be useful in biotechnology. In planar lipid bilayers, individual OmpG pores reconstituted by insertion from detergent exhibit pronounced asymmetry in current-voltage relationships and voltage-dependent gating. Here, this asymmetry is used to deduce the orientation of OmpG in the bilayers. We introduced two cysteines into the extracellular loops of OmpG. Cleavage of the disulfide bond formed by these residues significantly increases spontaneous gating of the pore. By adding DTT to one side of the bilayer or the other, we demonstrated that pores showing a quiet trace at negative potentials have a "trans" conformation (extracellular loops on the trans side of the bilayer), while pores showing a quiet trace at positive potentials have a "cis" conformation (extracellular loops on the cis side). With this knowledge, we examined the binding of a cyclodextrin to OmpG. When the cyclodextrin was presented to the extracellular face of the pore, transient multisite interactions were observed. In contrast, when the cyclodextrin was presented to the periplasmic face, a more stable single-site interaction occurred. Because the cyclodextrin can act as a molecular adapter by binding analytes, this information serves to advance the use of OmpG as a biosensor.