Aggregation of IGF-I receptors or insulin receptors and activation of their kinase activity are simultaneously caused by the presence of polycations or K-ras basic peptides

A Case Study of Eukaryogenesis: The Evolution of Photoreception by Photolyase/Cryptochrome Proteins

Eukaryogenesis, the origin of the eukaryotes, is still poorly understood. Herein, we show how a detailed all-kingdom phylogenetic analysis overlaid with a map of key biochemical features can provide valuable clues. The photolyase/cryptochrome family of proteins are well known to repair DNA in response to potentially harmful effects of sunlight and to entrain circadian rhythms. Phylogenetic analysis of photolyase/cryptochrome protein sequences from a wide range of prokaryotes and eukaryotes points to a number of horizontal gene transfer events between ancestral bacteria and ancestral eukaryotes. Previous experimental research has characterised patterns of tryptophan residues in these proteins that are important for photoreception, specifically a tryptophan dyad, a canonical tryptophan triad, an alternative tryptophan triad, a tryptophan tetrad and an alternative tetrad. Our results suggest that the spread of the different triad and tetrad motifs across the kingdoms of life accompanied the putative horizontal gene transfers and is consistent with multiple bacterial contributions to eukaryogenesis.

Syndecan-1 couples the insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor to inside-out integrin activation

Syndecan-1 (Sdc1) engages and activates the αvβ3 (and/or αvβ5) integrin when clustered in human carcinoma and endothelial cells. Although the engagement is extracellular, the activation mechanism is cytoplasmic. This talin-dependent, inside-out signaling pathway is activated downstream of the insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor (IGF1R), whose kinase activity is triggered by Sdc1 clustering. In vitro binding assays using purified receptors suggest that association of the Sdc1 ectodomain with the integrin provides a 'docking face' for IGF1R. IGF1R docking and activation of the associated integrin is blocked by synstatin (SSTN(92-119)), a peptide derived from the integrin engagement site in Sdc1. IGF1R colocalizes with αvβ3 integrin and Sdc1 in focal contacts, but fails to associate with or activate the integrin in cells either lacking Sdc1 or expressing Sdc1(Δ67-121), a mutant that is unable to form the Sdc1-integrin-IGF1R ternary complex. Integrin activation is also blocked by IGF1R inhibitors or by silencing IGF1R or talin expression with small-interfering RNAs (siRNAs). In both cases, expression of the constitutively active talin F23 head domain rescues integrin activation. We recently reported that SSTN(92-119) blocks angiogenesis and impairs tumor growth in mice, therefore this Sdc1-mediated integrin regulatory mechanism might be a crucial regulator of disease processes known to rely on these integrins, including tumor cell metastasis and tumor-induced angiogenesis.

Binding and clustering of glycosaminoglycans: a common property of mono- and multivalent cell-penetrating compounds

Recent observations in cell culture provide evidence that negatively charged glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) at the surface of biological cells bind cationic cell-penetrating compounds (CPCs) and cluster during CPC binding, thereby contributing to their endocytotic uptake. The GAG binding and clustering occur in the low-micromolar concentration range and suggest a tight interaction between GAGs and CPCs, although the relation between binding affinity and specificity of this interaction remains to be investigated. We therefore measured the GAG binding and clustering of various mono- and multivalent CPCs such as DNA transfection vectors (polyethylenimine; 1,2-dioleoyl-3-trimethylammonium-propane), amino acid homopolymers (oligoarginine; oligolysine), and cell-penetrating peptides (Penetratin; HIV-1 Tat) by means of isothermal titration calorimetry and dynamic light scattering. We find that these structurally diverse CPCs share the property of GAG binding and clustering. The binding is very tight (microscopic dissociation constants between 0.34 and 1.34 microM) and thus biologically relevant. The hydrodynamic radius of the resulting aggregates ranges from 78 nm to 586 nm, suggesting that they consist of numerous GAG chains cross-linked by CPCs. Likewise, the membrane-permeant monovalent cation acridine orange leads to GAG binding and clustering, in contrast to its membrane-impermeant structural analogs propidium iodide and ethidium bromide. Because the binding and clustering of GAGs were found to be a common denominator of all CPCs tested, these properties might be helpful to identify further CPCs.

Inhibition of pig liver and Zea mays L. polyamine oxidase: a comparative study

Polyamine oxidase (PAO) is involved in polyamine metabolism and production of hydrogen peroxide in animal and plants, thus representing a key system in development and programmed cell death. In the present study, the inhibitory effect of amiloride, p-aminobenzamidine, clonidine, 4',6-diamidino-2-phenyl-indole (DAPI), gabexate mesylate, guazatine, and N,N'-bis(2,3-butadienyl)-1,4-butane-diamine (MDL72527) on the catalytic activity of pig liver and Zea mays L. PAO, Lens culinaris L. and Pisum sativum L. and swine kidney copper amine oxidase, bovine trypsin, as well as neuronal constitutive nitric oxide synthase (NOS-I) was investigated. Moreover, agmatine and N(3) -prenylagmatine (G3) were observed to inhibit pig liver and Zea mays L. PAO, bovine trypsin, and NOS-I action, but were substrates for Lens culinaris L., Pisum sativum L. and swine kidney copper amine oxidase. Guazatine and G3 inhibited selectively Zea mays L. PAO with K(i) values of 7.5 x 10(-9) M and 1.5 x 10(-8) M, respectively (at pH 6.5 and 25.0 degrees C). As a whole, the data reported here represent examples of enzyme cross-inhibition, and appear to be relevant in view of the use of cationic L-arginine-and imidazole-based compounds as drugs.

A 30-angstrom-long U-shaped catalytic tunnel in the crystal structure of polyamine oxidase

BACKGROUND

Polyamines are essential for cell growth and differentiation; compounds interfering with their metabolism are potential anticancer agents. Polyamine oxidase (PAO) plays a central role in polyamine homeostasis. The enzyme utilises an FAD cofactor to catalyse the oxidation of the secondary amino groups of spermine and spermidine.

RESULTS

The first crystal structure of a polyamine oxidase has been determined to a resolution of 1.9 Angstroms. PAO from Zea mays contains two domains, which define a remarkable 30 Angstrom long U-shaped catalytic tunnel at their interface. The structure of PAO in complex with the inhibitor MDL72527 reveals the residues forming the catalytic machinery and unusual enzyme-inhibitor CH.O H bonds. A ring of glutamate and aspartate residues surrounding one of the two tunnel openings contributes to the steering of the substrate towards the inside of the tunnel.

CONCLUSIONS

PAO specifically oxidizes substrates that have both primary and secondary amino groups. The complex with MDL72527 shows that the primary amino groups are essential for the proper alignment of the substrate with respect to the flavin. Conservation of an N-terminal sequence motif indicates that PAO is member of a novel family of flavoenzymes. Among these, monoamine oxidase displays significant sequence homology with PAO, suggesting a similar overall folding topology.

Detection of protein tyrosine kinase activity using a high-capacity streptavidin-coated membrane and optimized biotinylated peptide substrates

A protein tyrosine kinase (PTK) assay system is described that uses a series of optimized biotinylated peptide substrates in conjunction with a streptavidin-coated matrix (SAM(2)) biotin capture membrane. The SAM(2) biotin capture membrane provides low backgrounds and high linear binding capacity (up to approximately 3.6 nmol of biotinylated PTK peptide/cm(2)), resulting in high signal-to-noise ratios and greater reproducibility. Capture of the phosphorylated peptide substrates onto the SAM(2) membrane is rapid and occurs independent of the amino acid sequence of the peptide, thereby overcoming difficulties commonly encountered with other methodologies. Two broad-specificity biotinylated PTK peptide substrates were identified with optimum kinetic properties, allowing members from eight distinct classes of enzymes, including transmembrane (epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), fibroblast growth factor receptor, insulin receptor, and platelet-derived growth factor receptor) and cytoplasmic (p43(abl), p56(lck), p60(src), and p93(fes)) PTKs, to be analyzed. A third biotinylated peptide substrate, shown to be highly selective for the EGFR, was used to illustrate the versatility of this system for both broad specificity and highly selective detection of PTK activity. The ability to accurately detect activity under optimum conditions and with crude cell extract samples, including kinetic analysis and with enzyme detection limits in the low femtomole range, supports the utility of this assay system for studying PTK enzymes.

Binding of polyamines to an autonomous domain of the regulatory subunit of protein kinase CK2 induces a conformational change in the holoenzyme. A proposed role for the kinase stimulation

The means by which the cell regulates protein kinase CK2 remain obscure. However, natural polyamines, cellular compounds required for cell proliferation, have been reported to strongly stimulate CK2-mediated phosphorylation of a number of substrates. Using spermine analogs, we have shown that polyamines directly interact with the CK2 beta subunit, and the chemical features of the highly acidic binding site (Asp51-Tyr80) have been determined. In the present study, we show that the isolated beta subunit region extending from residue Asp51 to Pro110 exhibits a specific and efficient polyamine binding activity similar to that of the entire beta subunit. Moreover, the replacement of Glu60, Glu61, and Glu63 of the beta subunit by 3 alanine residues leads to a loss of the spermine-induced stimulation of CK2 activity which correlates with a decrease in spermine binding affinity. Thermal stability studies indicate that the binding of spermine induces a 4 degrees C decrease of the Tm value for the holoenzyme. This was confirmed by circular dichroism analyses, which show that the 6 degrees C negative shift of the CK2 Tm value provoked by spermine binding, reflects a conformational change in the kinase. Together, these observations strongly suggest that this newly defined polyamine-binding domain is involved in the intrasteric regulation of CK2 activity.

Histone H4 stimulates glucose uptake through the insulin receptor

Histone H4 stimulates the uptake of glucose in rat adipocytes and muscle cells. However, the mechanism of this unusual activity is not known. Therefore, we have begun to investigate the mechanism by which histone H4 stimulates the glucose uptake in rat adipocytes. We report that histone H4 requires 15-20 min to achieve its maximum effect and its time course is virtually indistinguishable from the time course of insulin itself. Reduction of the concentration of insulin receptors on the surface of adipocytes, either by trypsin digestion of the receptor, or by insulin-induced down regulation of the receptor, reduced the histone H4 effect as well as the insulin effects. Also, quercetin, a bioflavenoid that inhibits the insulin receptor tyrosine kinase activity, inhibits the actions of both histone H4 and insulin. However, histone H4 activity is somewhat more resistant to these interventions than insulin activity. In contrast to the activity of insulin, histone H4 does not appear to be able to down regulate the insulin receptor, since the pretreatment of adipocytes with histone H4 did not affect the subsequent actions of either insulin or histone H4. Finally, Scatchard analysis of the binding of 125I-insulin in the presence and absence of histone H4 increases the specific binding of insulin in a concentration dependent fashion. Histone H2b, a histone that does not have insulin-like activity, does not affect insulin binding. Taken together, these data suggest that the greatest portion of the insulin-like activity of histone H4 is initiated at the insulin receptor. However, the interaction of histone H4 and the insulin receptor is more complex than a simple binding of H4 to the insulin binding site. These studies may provide additional insight into alternate mechanisms for activation of the insulin receptor.

Effect of synthetic peptides representing the hypervariable region of p21ras on Xenopus laevis oocyte maturation

The carboxy-terminal hypervariable regions of p21ras proteins have been highly conserved throughout evolution but no function has been assigned to them yet. This region has been suggested as a possible candidate for receptor recognition. We have tested the possibility of this region being involved in p21ras biological function. Synthetic peptides corresponding to the hypervariable domains of p21N-ras and p21K(B)-ras were microinjected into Xenopus oocytes to assess their effect on oocyte maturation. The K(B)-ras peptide inhibited insulin-dependent but not progesterone-dependent maturation, in contrast with the N-ras peptide which did not inhibit maturation significantly. A control peptide, with the same amino acid composition as the K(B)-ras peptide but with a scrambled sequence, and poly(D,L-lysine) were inactive. Pentalysine had partial activity which may be due to its mimicking the lysine-rich stretch of the K(B)-ras sequence. The data support the hypothesis that the K(B)-ras gene product specifically is involved in transducing the insulin and/or insulin-like growth factor 1 signal.

Stimulation of insulin receptor tyrosine kinase activity by an amino terminal sequence of human growth hormone

The in vitro effect of a hypoglycaemic fragment of human growth hormone containing the sequence H2N-Leu-Ser-Arg-Leu-Phe-Asu11-Asn-Ala-COOH (Asu11-hGH 6-13) on tyrosine kinase of rat hepatic insulin receptors was examined. Insulin receptor kinase activity was evaluated using the synthetic polypeptide poly(Glu-Tyr)(4:1) as substrate. The hypoglycaemic Asu11-hGH 6-13 appeared to enhance the phosphorylation of the exogenous substrate by the stimulation of insulin receptor kinase activity. The levels of poly(Glu-Tyr)(4:1) phosphorylation were significantly higher in the insulin receptor preparations incubated in the presence of the Asu11-hGH 6-13 peptide. A dose dependent stimulation of receptor kinase activity was observed and this stimulatory effect was found to be further enhanced by the addition of increasing concentrations of insulin. In hepatic extracts depleted of insulin receptor, no stimulation of kinase activity by the Asu11-hGH 6-13 was observed. From these data, it is concluded that the increase of poly (Glu-Tyr) (4:1) phosphorylation is the result of the interaction between the Asu11-hGH 6-13 and the hepatic insulin receptor.

Characterization of human placental insulin-like growth factor-I/insulin hybrid receptors by protein microsequencing and purification

Protein microsequencing of human placental IGF-I receptors purified by immunoaffinity chromatography using IGF-I receptor specific monoclonal antibody revealed amino acid sequences of both IGF-I and insulin receptors. Since this finding indicated the presence of IGF-I/insulin receptor hybrids, hybrid receptors were further purified by immunoaffinity chromatography using insulin receptor specific monoclonal antibody. The molecular size of the nonreduced hybrid receptor was approximately 350K, indicating that the IGF-I and insulin receptor alpha beta halves were disulfide-linked. The ratio of IGF/insulin binding activity of purified hybrid receptors was approximately 25 when measured using tracer amounts of radioactive ligands. 125I-IGF binding to these receptors was inhibited by IGF-I and insulin with IC50s of approximately 2 and approximately 1000 nM, respectively. 125I-Insulin binding to these receptors was similarly inhibited by IGF-I and insulin with IC50 of approximately 3 nM. Autophosphorylation and kinase activities of the hybrid receptor were stimulated by IGF-I more effectively than insulin in a dose-dependent manner. Thus, the present studies indicate that hybrid receptors purified from human placenta have the functional properties of an IGF-I receptor.

Histone H4 stimulates glucose transport activity in rat skeletal muscle

We investigated the effects of purified histone H4 on glucose transport activity in rat soleus and flexor digitorum brevis muscles. Histone H4, at concentrations up to 11.8 microM, increased 2-deoxyglucose (2-DG) uptake in a dose-dependent fashion. However, at concentrations higher than 11.8 microM, H4 caused a decrease in 2-DG uptake from the maximum, suggesting a secondary inhibitory action of this compound. The maximal effect of H4 on 2-DG uptake was not additive to the maximal effect of insulin. Moreover, 2-DG uptake in the presence of both H4 and insulin was significantly lower than the 2-DG uptake in the presence of insulin alone. The maximal effect of H4 on stimulation of 2-DG uptake was neither additive nor inhibitory to the maximal effects of the intracellularly acting insulin mimetics sodium vanadate or H2O2. It was, on the other hand, additive to the maximal effects of muscle contractions. Also, in contrast with the effects of H4 on insulin-stimulated 2-DG uptake, H4 did not inhibit insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I)-stimulated 2-DG uptake, as the maximal effects of H4 and IGF-I were additive. Scatchard analysis of the binding of 125I-insulin in the absence or presence of histone H4 revealed that H4 increased the specific binding of insulin without affecting receptor affinity. These data suggest that H4 interacts with the insulin, rather than the hypoxia/contraction, pathway for activation of glucose transport in muscle tissue, and that H4 acts either directly or indirectly to increase the number of insulin receptors at the surface of the muscle cell. This interaction does not appear to occur with the similar, although distinct, IGF-I receptor. These studies may provide additional insight into the complex signal-transduction systems of insulin action.

Insulinlike growth factors and binding proteins in colon cancer

Insulinlike growth factors (IGFs) express anabolic and mitogenic activity on wide variety of cells. Besides endocrine effects, IGFs have major autocrine and paracrine effects on many cellular functions. Two factors that significantly affect the extent of cellular response to IGFs include the membrane receptors for IGFs and the soluble binding proteins (BPs), which modulate the action of IGFs at the receptor level. IGFs, IGF receptors, and IGFs and their BPs (IGF-BPs) thus constitute three components of the IGF system. A role of IGFs in the transformation and proliferation of cancer cells has become increasingly evident in the past few years. Studies from several laboratories show that all three components of the IGF system may play an important role in the proliferation of colon cancers. It was recently shown that the relative expression of IGFs and IGF/BPs may critically control the metastatic potential of colon cancers. The purpose of this article is to summarize our current knowledge of the IGF system and to present support for a significant role of IGFs in the initiation and growth of colon cancers. The expression and structural aspects of IGFs, their receptors, and BPs are outlined first, followed by a discussion of the role of IGFs in gastrointestinal functions and in colon cancers.

Aggregation-induced activation of the epidermal growth factor receptor protein tyrosine kinase

Various agents are able to stimulate the EGF receptor protein tyrosine kinase in the absence of ligand binding. To characterize their mechanism of action, we investigated their effects on the kinase activity of the intracellular domain of the EGF receptor (EGFR-IC). EGFR-IC (67 kDa) lacking the extracellular domain and transmembrane segment of the EGF receptor, but retaining kinase and autophosphorylation domains, was produced and purified as a soluble, cytoplasmic protein from Sf9 insect cells infected with a recombinant baculovirus. EGFR-IC was able to undergo autophosphorylation in a manner similar to full-length EGFR. Synthetic substrate peptides showed similar affinity to EGFR-IC as to the full-length receptor. The activity of the EGFR-IC was found to be dependent on divalent cations, Mn2+ being a more potent activator than Mg2+. Agents capable of aggregating the kinase by direct interaction (cross-linking antibodies, polycations) or through altering the surrounding solvent structure and thereby decreasing protein solubility [ammonium sulfate, poly(ethylene glycol), 2-methyl-2,4-pentanediol] activated the kinase in a manner which correlated with their ability to precipitate the EGFR intracellular domain. The widely different chemical nature of these agents suggests that they do not act by direct interaction with specific allosteric regulatory sites, but rather by facilitating the interactions between kinase molecules. These results support the hypothesis that full-length receptor aggregation itself, induced by ligand binding to the extracellular domain, results in intracellular domain interactions and the activation of kinase activity.

Growth-stimulatory monoclonal antibodies against human insulin-like growth factor I receptor

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against purified human placental insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I) receptors were prepared and characterized. Three IgG mAbs were specific for the human IGF-I receptor and displayed negligible crossreactivity with the human insulin receptor. They stimulated 125I-labeled IGF-I (125I-IGF-I) or 125I-IGF-II binding to purified human placental IGF-I receptors and to IGF-I receptors expressed in NIH 3T3 cells in contrast to the well-studied mAb alpha IR-3, which inhibits 125I-IGF-I or 125I-IGF-II binding to both forms of IGF-I receptors. The mAbs introduced in this study stimulated DNA synthesis in NIH 3T3 cells expressing human IGF-I receptors approximately 1.5-fold above the basal level and the IGF-I- or IGF-II-stimulated level. In contrast, alpha IR-3 inhibited both basal and IGF-I or IGF-II-stimulated DNA synthesis by approximately 30%. Inhibition of IGF-II-stimulated DNA synthesis by alpha IR-3 was as potent as its inhibition of IGF-I-stimulated DNA synthesis, although IGF-II binding to the IGF-I receptors was not inhibited by IGF-II as potently as was IGF-I. With the purified IGF-I receptors, both inhibitory and stimulatory mAbs were shown to activate autophosphorylation of the IGF-I receptor beta subunit and to induce microaggregation of the receptors. These results suggest that conformational changes resulting from receptor dimerization in the presence of either type of mAb may affect the signal-transducing function of the IGF-I receptor differently. These additional mAbs and alpha IR-3 immunoprecipitated nearly 90% of IGF-I binding activity from Triton X-100-solubilized human placental membranes, indicating that IGF-I receptor reactive with these mAbs is the major form of the IGF-I receptor in human placenta.