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Efficient transdermal delivery of functional protein cargoes by a hydrophobic peptide MTD 1067. Sci Rep 2022; 12:10853. [PMID: 35760980 PMCID: PMC9237094 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-14463-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The skin has a protective barrier against the external environment, making the transdermal delivery of active macromolecules very difficult. Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) have been accepted as useful delivery tools owing to their high transduction efficiency and low cytotoxicity. In this study, we evaluated the hydrophobic peptide, macromolecule transduction domain 1067 (MTD 1067) as a CPP for the transdermal delivery of protein cargoes of various sizes, including growth hormone-releasing hexapeptide-6 (GHRP-6), a truncated form of insulin-like growth factor-I (des(1-3)IGF-I), and platelet-derived growth factor BB (PDGF-BB). The MTD 1067-conjugated GHRP-6 (MTD-GHRP-6) was chemically synthesized, whereas the MTD 1067-conjugated des(1-3)IGF-I and PDGF-BB proteins (MTD-des(1-3)IGF-I and MTD-PDGF-BB) were generated as recombinant proteins. All the MTD 1067-conjugated cargoes exhibited biological activities identical or improved when compared to those of the original cargoes. The analysis of confocal microscopy images showed that MTD-GHRP-6, MTD-des(1-3)IGF-I, and MTD-PDGF-BB were detected at 4.4-, 18.8-, and 32.9-times higher levels in the dermis, respectively, compared to the control group without MTD. Furthermore, the MTD 1067-conjugated cargoes did not show cytotoxicity. Altogether, our data demonstrate the potential of MTD 1067 conjugation in developing functional macromolecules for cosmetics and drugs with enhanced transdermal permeability.
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Pandey V, Raza MK, Joshi P, Gupta I. Synthesis of Water-Soluble Thioglycosylated trans-A 2B 2 Type Porphyrins: Cellular Uptake Studies and Photodynamic Efficiency. J Org Chem 2020; 85:6309-6322. [PMID: 32320242 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.9b03491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The synthesis of water-soluble thioglycosylated A2B2 type porphyrins and their zinc(II) complexes is reported. The water-soluble trans-A2B2 porphyrins were synthesized in two steps, via [2+2] condensation between thioglycosylated dipyrromethanes and aromatic aldehydes in 15-21% yields. The thioglycosylated trans-A2B2 porphyrins showed decent in vitro singlet oxygen generation, which was supported by the intracellular DCFDA study. The in vitro cellular investigations of thioglycosylated A2B2 porphyrins were carried out in lung cancer cells (A549) to test their photodynamic therapeutic (PDT) activity. The PDT study revealed significant cytotoxicities of porphyrins with IC50 values between 23.3 and 44.2 μM in the dark, whereas, after visible light exposure, the photosensitizers exhibited IC50 values around 11.1-23.8 μM. The water-soluble thioglycosylated zinc(II) porphyrins having two meso-N-butylcarbazole groups exhibited an excellent degree of photocytotoxicity (IC50 = 4.6-8.8 μM). The flow cytometry analysis revealed that cellular uptake and ROS (reactive oxygen species) generation efficiency of water-soluble thioglycosylated zinc(II) porphyrins were considerably higher than nonmetalated porphyrins. Confocal microscopy images displayed substantial distribution in the endoplasmic reticulum with partial colocalization in mitochondria and lysosomes of water-soluble thioglycosylated zinc(II) porphyrins in A549 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vijayalakshmi Pandey
- Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Palaj Campus, Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382355, India
| | - Md Kausar Raza
- Department of Inorganic and Physical Chemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka 560012, India
| | - Pooja Joshi
- Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Palaj Campus, Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382355, India
| | - Iti Gupta
- Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Palaj Campus, Gandhinagar, Gujarat 382355, India
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Xu J, Khan AR, Fu M, Wang R, Ji J, Zhai G. Cell-penetrating peptide: a means of breaking through the physiological barriers of different tissues and organs. J Control Release 2019; 309:106-124. [PMID: 31323244 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2019.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2019] [Accepted: 07/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The selective infiltration of cell membranes and tissue barriers often blocks the entry of most active molecules. This natural defense mechanism prevents the invasion of exogenous substances and limits the therapeutic value of most available molecules. Therefore, it is particularly important to find appropriate ways of membrane translocation and therapeutic agent delivery to its target site. Cell penetrating peptides (CPPs) are a group of short peptides harnessed in this condition, possessing a significant capacity for membrane transduction and could be exploited to transfer various biologically active cargoes into the cells. Since their discovery, CPPs have been employed for delivery of a wide variety of therapeutic molecules to treat various disorders including cranial nerve involvement, ocular inflammation, myocardial ischemia, dermatosis and cancer. The promising results of CPPs-derived therapeutics in various tumor models demonstrated a potential and worthwhile scope of CPPs in chemotherapy. This review describes the detailed description of CPPs and CPPs-assisted molecular delivery against various tissues and organs disorders. An emphasis is focused on summarizing the novel insights and achievements of CPPs in surmounting the natural membrane barriers during the last 5 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiangkang Xu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, China
| | - Abdur Rauf Khan
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, China
| | - Manfei Fu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, China
| | - Rujuan Wang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, China
| | - Jianbo Ji
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, China
| | - Guangxi Zhai
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, Shandong University, Jinan 250012, China.
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4
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Cell penetrating peptides: A concise review with emphasis on biomedical applications. Biomed Pharmacother 2018; 108:1090-1096. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2018.09.097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2018] [Revised: 09/10/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
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5
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Keller AA, Scheiding B, Breitling R, Licht A, Hemmerich P, Lorkowski S, Reissmann S. Transduction and transfection of difficult-to-transfect cells: Systematic attempts for the transfection of protozoa Leishmania. J Cell Biochem 2018; 120:14-27. [PMID: 30216507 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.27463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2018] [Accepted: 07/25/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are used to internalize different cargoes, including DNA, into live mammalian and plant cells. Despite many cells being easily transfected with this approach, other cells are rather "difficult" or "hard to transfect," including protist cells of the genus Leishmania. Based on our previous results in successfully internalizing proteins into Leishmania tarentolae cells, we used single CPPs and three different DNA-binding proteins to form protein-like complexes with plasmids covered with CPPs. We attempted magnetofection, electroporation, and transfection using a number of commercially available detergents. While complex formation with negatively charged DNA required substantially higher amounts of CPPs than those necessary for mostly neutral proteins, the cytotoxicity of the required amounts of CPPs and auxiliaries was thoroughly studied. We found that Leishmania cells were indeed susceptible to high concentrations of some CPPs and auxiliaries, although in a different manner compared with that for mammalian cells. The lack of successful transfections implies the necessity to accept certain general limitations regarding DNA internalization into difficult-to-transfect cells. Only electroporation allowed reproducible internalization of large and rigid plasmid DNA molecules through electrically disturbed extended membrane areas, known as permeable membrane macrodomains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea-Anneliese Keller
- Friedrich Schiller University, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Institute of Nutritional Sciences and Abbe Centre of Photonics, Jena, Germany
| | - Berith Scheiding
- Friedrich Schiller University, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Institute of Nutritional Sciences and Abbe Centre of Photonics, Jena, Germany
| | | | | | - Peter Hemmerich
- Leibniz Institute for Aging Research, Fritz Lipmann Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Stefan Lorkowski
- Friedrich Schiller University, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Institute of Nutritional Sciences and Abbe Centre of Photonics, Jena, Germany.,Competence Cluster for Nutrition and Cardiovascular Health (nutriCARD), Halle-Jena-Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Siegmund Reissmann
- Friedrich Schiller University, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Jena, Germany
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Tian Y, Zeng X, Li J, Jiang Y, Zhao H, Wang D, Huang X, Li Z. Achieving enhanced cell penetration of short conformationally constrained peptides through amphiphilicity tuning. Chem Sci 2017; 8:7576-7581. [PMID: 29568420 PMCID: PMC5848794 DOI: 10.1039/c7sc03614k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2017] [Accepted: 09/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
We synthesized a panel of conformationally constrained peptides with either α-helix or β-hairpin conformations. We tuned the amphiphilicity of these constrained peptides with different distributions of charged or hydrophobic residues and compared their cellular uptake efficiencies in different cell lines.
Due to their enhanced stability and cell permeability, cyclic cell-penetrating peptides have been widely used as delivery vectors for transporting cell-impermeable cargos into cells. In this study, we synthesized a panel of conformationally constrained peptides with either α-helix or β-hairpin conformations. We tuned the amphiphilicity of these constrained peptides with different distributions of charged or hydrophobic residues and compared their cellular uptake efficiencies in different cell lines. We found that the amphipathicity of these conformationally constrained peptides correlates well with their cellular uptake efficiency. We proposed that peptides with larger hydrophobic moments (HMs) have stronger binding affinities with the cell membrane which further accelerates the endocytosis process. This finding should provide an approach towards the design of more potent conformationally constrained cell-penetrating peptides for biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Tian
- School of Chemical Biology and Biotechnology , Shenzhen Graduate School of Peking University , Shenzhen , 518055 , China . .,School of Life Science and Engineering , Southwest Jiaotong University , Chengdu , 610031 , China
| | - Xiangze Zeng
- Department of Chemistry , Center of Systems Biology and Human Health , School of Science and Institute for Advance Study , The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology , Clear Water Bay , Kowloon , Hong Kong .
| | - Jingxu Li
- School of Chemical Biology and Biotechnology , Shenzhen Graduate School of Peking University , Shenzhen , 518055 , China .
| | - Yanhong Jiang
- School of Chemical Biology and Biotechnology , Shenzhen Graduate School of Peking University , Shenzhen , 518055 , China .
| | - Hui Zhao
- School of Chemical Biology and Biotechnology , Shenzhen Graduate School of Peking University , Shenzhen , 518055 , China .
| | - Dongyuan Wang
- School of Chemical Biology and Biotechnology , Shenzhen Graduate School of Peking University , Shenzhen , 518055 , China .
| | - Xuhui Huang
- Department of Chemistry , Center of Systems Biology and Human Health , School of Science and Institute for Advance Study , The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology , Clear Water Bay , Kowloon , Hong Kong .
| | - Zigang Li
- School of Chemical Biology and Biotechnology , Shenzhen Graduate School of Peking University , Shenzhen , 518055 , China .
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Abstract
During the three decades of cell-penetrating peptides era the superfamily of CPPs has rapidly expanded, and the quest for new sequences continues. CPPs have been well recognized by scientific community and they have been used for transduction of a wide variety of molecules and particles into cultured cells and in vivo. In parallel with application of CPPs for delivering of active payloads, the mechanisms that such peptides take advantage of for gaining access to cells' insides have been in the focus of intense studies. Although the common denominator "cell penetration" unites all CPPs, the interaction partners on the cell surface, evoked cellular responses and even the uptake mechanisms might greatly vary between different peptide types. Here we present some possibilities for classification of CPPs based on their type of origin, physical-chemical properties, and the extent of modifications and design efforts. We also briefly analyze the internalization mechanisms with regard to their classification into groups based on physical-chemical characteristics.
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Emerging landscape of cell penetrating peptide in reprogramming and gene editing. J Control Release 2016; 226:124-37. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2016.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2015] [Revised: 01/31/2016] [Accepted: 02/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Calabrese AN, Liu Y, Wang T, Musgrave IF, Pukala TL, Tabor RF, Martin LL, Carver JA, Bowie JH. The Amyloid Fibril-Forming Properties of the Amphibian Antimicrobial Peptide Uperin 3.5. Chembiochem 2015; 17:239-46. [PMID: 26676975 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201500518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The amphibian skin is a vast resource for bioactive peptides, which form the basis of the animals' innate immune system. Key components of the secretions of the cutaneous glands are antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), which exert their cytotoxic effects often as a result of membrane disruption. It is becoming increasingly evident that there is a link between the mechanism of action of AMPs and amyloidogenic peptides and proteins. In this work, we demonstrate that the broad-spectrum amphibian AMP uperin 3.5, which has a random-coil structure in solution but adopts an α-helical structure in membrane-like environments, forms amyloid fibrils rapidly in solution at neutral pH. These fibrils are cytotoxic to model neuronal cells in a similar fashion to those formed by the proteins implicated in neurodegenerative diseases. The addition of small quantities of 2,2,2-trifluoroethanol accelerates fibril formation by uperin 3.5, and is correlated with a structural stabilisation induced by this co-solvent. Uperin 3.5 fibril formation and the associated cellular toxicity are inhibited by the polyphenol (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG). Furthermore, EGCG rapidly dissociates fully formed uperin 3.5 fibrils. Ion mobility-mass spectrometry reveals that uperin 3.5 adopts various oligomeric states in solution. Combined, these observations imply that the mechanism of membrane permeability by uperin 3.5 is related to its fibril-forming properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio N Calabrese
- School of Physical Sciences or School of Medical Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, 5005, South Australia, Australia
| | - Yanqin Liu
- School of Physical Sciences or School of Medical Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, 5005, South Australia, Australia.,School of Technology, Hebei Agricultural University, Cangzhou, Hebei, 061100, China
| | - Tianfang Wang
- Faculty of Science, Health, Education and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, 4556, Queensland, Australia
| | - Ian F Musgrave
- School of Physical Sciences or School of Medical Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, 5005, South Australia, Australia
| | - Tara L Pukala
- School of Physical Sciences or School of Medical Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, 5005, South Australia, Australia
| | - Rico F Tabor
- School of Chemistry, Monash University, Clayton, 3800, Victoria, Australia
| | - Lisandra L Martin
- School of Chemistry, Monash University, Clayton, 3800, Victoria, Australia.
| | - John A Carver
- Research School of Chemistry, The Australian National University, Acton, 2601, Australian Capital Territory, Australia.
| | - John H Bowie
- School of Physical Sciences or School of Medical Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, 5005, South Australia, Australia
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10
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Liu Y, Eichler J, Pischetsrieder M. Virtual screening of a milk peptide database for the identification of food-derived antimicrobial peptides. Mol Nutr Food Res 2015. [PMID: 26202586 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.201500182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
SCOPE Milk provides a wide range of bioactive substances, such as antimicrobial peptides and proteins. Our study aimed to identify novel antimicrobial peptides naturally present in milk. METHODS AND RESULTS The components of an endogenous bovine milk peptide database were virtually screened for charge, amphipathy, and predicted secondary structure. Thus, 23 of 248 screened peptides were identified as candidates for antimicrobial effects. After commercial synthesis, their antimicrobial activities were determined against Escherichia coli NEB5α, E. coli ATCC25922, and Bacillus subtilis ATCC6051. In the tested concentration range (<2 mM), bacteriostatic activity of 14 peptides was detected including nine peptides inhibiting both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The most effective fragment was TKLTEEEKNRLNFLKKISQRYQKFΑLPQYLK corresponding to αS2 -casein151-181 , with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 4.0 μM against B. subtilis ATCC6051, and minimum inhibitory concentrations of 16.2 μM against both E. coli strains. Circular dichroism spectroscopy revealed conformational changes of most active peptides in a membrane-mimic environment, transitioning from an unordered to α-helical structure. CONCLUSION Screening of food peptide databases by prediction tools is an efficient method to identify novel antimicrobial food-derived peptides. Milk-derived antimicrobial peptides may have potential use as functional food ingredients and help to understand the molecular mechanisms of anti-infective milk effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yufang Liu
- Food Chemistry Unit, Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Emil-Fischer-Center, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
| | - Jutta Eichler
- Medicinal Chemistry Unit, Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Emil-Fischer-Center, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
| | - Monika Pischetsrieder
- Food Chemistry Unit, Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Emil-Fischer-Center, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Erlangen, Germany
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Discovery of a non-cationic cell penetrating peptide derived from membrane-interacting human proteins and its potential as a protein delivery carrier. Sci Rep 2015; 5:11719. [PMID: 26114640 PMCID: PMC4481774 DOI: 10.1038/srep11719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2014] [Accepted: 06/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell penetrating peptides (CPPs) are peptides that can be translocated into cells and used as a carrier platform for the intracellular uptake of cargo molecules. Subject to the source of CPP sequences and their positively charged nature, the cytotoxicity and immunogenicity of conventional CPPs needs to be optimized to expand their utility for biomedical applications. In addition to these safety issues, the stability of CPPs needs to be addressed since their positively charged residues are prone to interact with the biological milieu. As an effort to overcome these limitations of the current CPP technology, we isolated CPP candidate sequences and synthesized peptides from twelve isoforms of annexin, a family of membrane-interacting human proteins. The candidate screen returned a CPP rich in hydrophobic residues that showed more efficient cellular uptake than TAT-CPP. We then investigated the uptake mechanism, subcellular localization, and biophysical properties of the newly found CPP, verifying low cytotoxicity, long-term serum stability, and non-immunogenicity. Finally, model proteins conjugated to this peptide were successfully delivered into mammalian cells both in vitro and in vivo, indicating a potential use of the peptide as a carrier for the delivery of macromolecular cargos.
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Tansi F, Kallweit E, Kaether C, Kappe K, Schumann C, Hilger I, Reissmann S. Internalization of Near-Infrared Fluorescently Labeled Activatable Cell-Penetrating Peptide and of Proteins into Human Fibrosarcoma Cell Line HT-1080. J Cell Biochem 2015; 116:1222-31. [DOI: 10.1002/jcb.25075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2014] [Accepted: 12/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Felista Tansi
- Institute of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology; Department of Experimental Radiology; Jena University Hospital; Friedrich-Schiller University; Erlanger Allee 101 Jena 07747 Germany
| | - Eric Kallweit
- Institute of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology; Department of Experimental Radiology; Jena University Hospital; Friedrich-Schiller University; Erlanger Allee 101 Jena 07747 Germany
- Ernst-Abbe-University of Applied Sciences; Carl-Zeiss-Promenade 2 Jena 07745 Germany
| | - Christoph Kaether
- Leibniz Institute for Age Research; Fritz-Lipmann-Institute; Beutenbergstr. 11 Jena 07745 Germany
| | - Katarina Kappe
- Jena Bioscience GmbH; Loebstedter Str. 80 Jena 07749 Germany
| | - Christina Schumann
- Ernst-Abbe-University of Applied Sciences; Carl-Zeiss-Promenade 2 Jena 07745 Germany
| | - Ingrid Hilger
- Institute of Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology; Department of Experimental Radiology; Jena University Hospital; Friedrich-Schiller University; Erlanger Allee 101 Jena 07747 Germany
| | - Siegmund Reissmann
- Jena Bioscience GmbH; Loebstedter Str. 80 Jena 07749 Germany
- Centrum of Molecular Biomedicine; Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics; Friedrich- Schiller-University; Dornburger Str. 25 Jena 07743 Germany
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Khan MV, Rabbani G, Ahmad E, Khan RH. Fluoroalcohols-induced modulation and amyloid formation in conalbumin. Int J Biol Macromol 2014; 70:606-14. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2014.07.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2014] [Revised: 06/27/2014] [Accepted: 07/09/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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14
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Reissmann S. Cell penetration: scope and limitations by the application of cell-penetrating peptides. J Pept Sci 2014; 20:760-84. [DOI: 10.1002/psc.2672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 176] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2014] [Revised: 06/06/2014] [Accepted: 06/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Siegmund Reissmann
- Friedrich Schiller University, Biological and Pharmaceutical Faculty; Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics; Dornburger Strasse 25 07743 Jena Germany
- Jena Bioscience GmbH; Loebstedter Strasse 80 07749 Jena Germany
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15
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Wang L, Wang D, Li F. Insight into the structures of the second and fifth transmembrane domains of Slc11a1 in membrane mimics. J Pept Sci 2014; 20:165-72. [DOI: 10.1002/psc.2593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2013] [Revised: 09/29/2013] [Accepted: 10/30/2013] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Li Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Supramolecular Structure and Materials; Jilin University; Changchun 130012 China
| | - Dan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Supramolecular Structure and Materials; Jilin University; Changchun 130012 China
| | - Fei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Supramolecular Structure and Materials; Jilin University; Changchun 130012 China
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16
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Keller AA, Mussbach F, Breitling R, Hemmerich P, Schaefer B, Lorkowski S, Reissmann S. Relationships between Cargo, Cell Penetrating Peptides and Cell Type for Uptake of Non-Covalent Complexes into Live Cells. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2013; 6:184-203. [PMID: 24275947 PMCID: PMC3816687 DOI: 10.3390/ph6020184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2012] [Revised: 01/29/2013] [Accepted: 01/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Modulating signaling pathways for research and therapy requires either suppression or expression of selected genes or internalization of proteins such as enzymes, antibodies, nucleotide binding proteins or substrates including nucleoside phosphates and enzyme inhibitors. Peptides, proteins and nucleotides are transported by fusing or conjugating them to cell penetrating peptides or by formation of non-covalent complexes. The latter is often preferred because of easy handling, uptake efficiency and auto-release of cargo into the live cell. In our studies complexes are formed with labeled or readily detectable cargoes for qualitative and quantitative estimation of their internalization. Properties and behavior of adhesion and suspension vertebrate cells as well as the protozoa Leishmania tarentolae are investigated with respect to proteolytic activity, uptake efficiency, intracellular localization and cytotoxicity. Our results show that peptide stability to membrane-bound, secreted or intracellular proteases varies between different CPPs and that the suitability of individual CPPs for a particular cargo in complex formation by non-covalent interactions requires detailed studies. Cells vary in their sensitivity to increasing concentrations of CPPs. Thus, most cells can be efficiently transduced with peptides, proteins and nucleotides with intracellular concentrations in the low micromole range. For each cargo, cell type and CPP the optimal conditions must be determined separately.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea-Anneliese Keller
- Biological and Pharmaceutical Faculty, Friedrich Schiller University, Dornburger Str. 25, 07743 Jena, Germany.
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Milletti F. Cell-penetrating peptides: classes, origin, and current landscape. Drug Discov Today 2012; 17:850-60. [PMID: 22465171 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2012.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 575] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2011] [Revised: 01/04/2012] [Accepted: 03/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
With more than ten new FDA approvals since 2001, peptides are emerging as an important therapeutic alternative to small molecules. However, unlike small molecules, peptides on the market today are limited to extracellular targets. By contrast, cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) can target intracellular proteins and also carry other cargoes (e.g. other peptides, small molecules or proteins) into the cell, thus offering great potential as future therapeutics. In this review I present a classification scheme for CPPs based on their physical-chemical properties and origin, and I provide a general framework for understanding and discovering new CPPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Milletti
- Hoffmann-La Roche Inc., pRED Informatics, 340 Kingsland Street, Nutley, NJ, USA.
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18
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Abstract
The classical view on how peptides enter cells has been changed due to the development in the research field of cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs). During the last 15 years, more than 100 peptide sequences have been published to enter cells and also to bring different biological cargoes with them. Here, we present an overview of CPPs, mainly trying to analyze their common properties yielding the prediction of their cell-penetrating properties. Furthermore, examples of recent research, ideas on classification and uptake mechanisms, as well as a summary of the therapeutic potential of CPPs are presented.
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Spotlight on Human LL-37, an Immunomodulatory Peptide with Promising Cell-Penetrating Properties. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2010. [PMCID: PMC4034075 DOI: 10.3390/ph3113435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Cationic antimicrobial peptides are major components of innate immunity and help control the initial steps of the infectious process. They are expressed not only by immunocytes, but also by epithelial cells. They share an amphipathic secondary structure with a polar cationic site, which explains their tropism for prokaryote membranes and their hydrophobic site contributing to the destructuration of these membranes. LL-37 is the only cationic antimicrobial peptide derived from human cathelicidin. LL-37 can also cross the plasma membrane of eukaryotic cells, probably through special domains of this membrane called lipid rafts. This transfer could be beneficial in the context of vaccination: the activation of intracellular toll-like receptors by a complex formed between CpG oligonucleotides and LL-37 could conceivably play a major role in the building of a cellular immunity involving NK cells.
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20
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Deshayes S, Konate K, Aldrian G, Crombez L, Heitz F, Divita G. Structural polymorphism of non-covalent peptide-based delivery systems: highway to cellular uptake. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2010; 1798:2304-14. [PMID: 20541523 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2010.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2010] [Revised: 06/02/2010] [Accepted: 06/02/2010] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
During the last two decades, delivery has become a major challenge for the development of new therapeutic molecules for the clinic. Although, several strategies either viral or non viral have been proposed to favor cellular uptake and targeting of therapeutics, only few of them have reach preclinical evaluation. Amongst them, cell-penetrating peptide (CPP) constitutes one of the most promising strategy and has applied for systemic in vivo delivery of a variety of therapeutic molecules. Two CPP-strategies have been described; using peptide carriers either covalently-linked to the cargo or forming non-covalent stable complexes with cargo. Peptide-based nanoparticle delivery system corresponds to small amphipathic peptides able to form stable nanoparticles with either proteins/peptides or nucleic acids and to enter the cell independently of the endosomal pathway. Three families of peptide-based nanoparticle systems; MPG, PEP and CADY have been successfully used for the delivery of various biologically active cargoes both ex vivo and in vivo in several animal models. This review will focus on the mechanism of the peptide-based nanoparticles; PEP, MPG and CADY in a structural and biophysical context. It will also highlight the major parameters associated to particle formation/stabilization and the impact of the carrier structural polymorphism in triggering cellular uptake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sébastien Deshayes
- University of Montpellier, Department of Molecular Biophysics and Therapeutics, 34293 Montpellier, France
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21
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Pellegrino S, Ferri N, Colombo N, Cremona E, Corsini A, Fanelli R, Gelmi ML, Cabrele C. Synthetic peptides containing a conserved sequence motif of the Id protein family modulate vascular smooth muscle cell phenotype. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2009; 19:6298-302. [PMID: 19833512 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2009.09.105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2009] [Revised: 09/24/2009] [Accepted: 09/24/2009] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Modulation of smooth muscle cells to a proliferating and migrating phenotype with downregulated alpha-actin expression is observed upon vascular lesion formation. The Id proteins (inhibitors of cell differentiation) play a role in the development of this phenotype. In contrast, synthetic peptides based on a conserved 11-residue Id sequence trigger the switch to a contractile phenotype that shows reduced cell growth and migration, increased expression of alpha-actin and decreased Id protein levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Pellegrino
- DISMAB-Dipartimento di Scienze Molecolari Applicate ai Biosistemi-Sez. Chimica Organica, Università degli Studi di Milano, I-20133 Milan, Italy
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22
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Hervé F, Ghinea N, Scherrmann JM. CNS delivery via adsorptive transcytosis. AAPS J 2008; 10:455-72. [PMID: 18726697 PMCID: PMC2761699 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-008-9055-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 352] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2008] [Accepted: 06/30/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Adsorptive-mediated transcytosis (AMT) provides a means for brain delivery of medicines across the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The BBB is readily equipped for the AMT process: it provides both the potential for binding and uptake of cationic molecules to the luminal surface of endothelial cells, and then for exocytosis at the abluminal surface. The transcytotic pathways present at the BBB and its morphological and enzymatic properties provide the means for movement of the molecules through the endothelial cytoplasm. AMT-based drug delivery to the brain was performed using cationic proteins and cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs). Protein cationization using either synthetic or natural polyamines is discussed and some examples of diamine/polyamine modified proteins that cross BBB are described. Two main families of CPPs belonging to the Tat-derived peptides and Syn-B vectors have been extensively used in CPP vector-mediated strategies allowing delivery of a large variety of small molecules as well as proteins across cell membranes in vitro and the BBB in vivo. CPP strategy suffers from several limitations such as toxicity and immunogenicity--like the cationization strategy--as well as the instability of peptide vectors in biological media. The review concludes by stressing the need to improve the understanding of AMT mechanisms at BBB and the effectiveness of cationized proteins and CPP-vectorized proteins as neurotherapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Françoise Hervé
- UFR Biomédicale, Université Paris Descartes, CNRS, UPR2228, 45 rue des Saints-Pères, 75270 Paris, France.
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23
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Relationships between the orientation and the structural properties of peptides and their membrane interactions. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2008; 1778:1537-44. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2008.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2007] [Revised: 04/14/2008] [Accepted: 04/21/2008] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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24
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Deshayes S, Decaffmeyer M, Brasseur R, Thomas A. Structural polymorphism of two CPP: An important parameter of activity. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2008; 1778:1197-205. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2008.01.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2007] [Revised: 12/27/2007] [Accepted: 01/28/2008] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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25
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Sibrian-Vazquez M, Jensen TJ, Vicente MGH. Synthesis, Characterization, and Metabolic Stability of Porphyrin−Peptide Conjugates Bearing Bifunctional Signaling Sequences. J Med Chem 2008; 51:2915-23. [DOI: 10.1021/jm701050j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Timothy J. Jensen
- Department of Chemistry, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803
| | - M. Graça H. Vicente
- Department of Chemistry, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803
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26
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Ziegler A. Thermodynamic studies and binding mechanisms of cell-penetrating peptides with lipids and glycosaminoglycans. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2008; 60:580-97. [PMID: 18045730 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2007.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2007] [Accepted: 10/06/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) traverse the membrane of biological cells at low micromolar concentrations and are able to take various cargo molecules along with. Despite large differences in their chemical structure, CPPs share the structural similarity of a high cationic charge density. This property confers to them the ability to bind electrostatically membrane constituents such as anionic lipids and glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). Controversies exist, however, about the biological response after the interaction of CPPs with such membrane constituents. Present review compares thermodynamic binding studies with conditions of the biological CPP uptake. It becomes evident that CPPs enter biological cells by different and probably competing mechanisms. For example, some amphipathic CPPs traverse pure lipid model membranes at low micromolar concentrations--at least in the absence of cargos. In contrast, no direct translocation at these conditions is observed for non-amphipathic CPPs. Finally, CPPs bind GAGs at low micromolar concentrations with potential consequences for endocytotic pathways.
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27
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Hudecz F, Bánóczi Z, Csík G. Medium-sized peptides as built in carriers for biologically active compounds. Med Res Rev 2006; 25:679-736. [PMID: 15952174 DOI: 10.1002/med.20034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
A growing number of oligopeptides of natural and/or synthetic origin have been described and considered as targeting structures for delivery bioactive compounds into various cell types. This review will outline the discovery of peptide sequences and the corresponding mid-sized oligopeptides with membrane translocating properties and also summarize de novo designed structures possessing similar features. Conjugates and chimera constructs derived from these sequences with covalently attached bioactive peptide, epitope, oligonucleotide, PNA, drug, reporter molecule will be reviewed. A brief note will refer to the present understanding on the uptake mechanism at the end of each section.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ferenc Hudecz
- Research Group of Peptide Chemistry, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest 112, POB 32, Hungary H-1518. hudecz@szerves,chem.elte.hu
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28
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Deshayes S, Morris MC, Divita G, Heitz F. Interactions of amphipathic CPPs with model membranes. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2006; 1758:328-35. [PMID: 16277976 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2005.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2005] [Revised: 10/07/2005] [Accepted: 10/07/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
We have investigated the interactions between two carrier peptides and model membrane systems as well as the conformational consequences of these interactions. Studies performed with lipid monolayers at the air-water interface have enabled identification of the nature of the lipid-peptide interactions and characterization of the influence of phospholipids on the ability of these peptides to penetrate into lipidic media. Penetration experiments reveal that both peptides interact strongly with phospholipids. Conformational investigations indicate that the lipid-peptide interaction govern the conformational state of the peptides. Based on the ability of both peptides to promote ion permeabilization of both natural and artificial membranes, we propose a model illustrating the translocation process. For MPG, it is based on the formation of a beta-barrel pore-like structure, while for Pep-1, it is based on association of helices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sébastien Deshayes
- CRBM-CNRS, FRE 2593, 1919, Route de Mende, F-34293 Montpellier cedex, France
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29
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Deshayes S, Morris MC, Divita G, Heitz F. Interactions of amphipathic carrier peptides with membrane components in relation with their ability to deliver therapeutics. J Pept Sci 2006; 12:758-65. [PMID: 17131287 DOI: 10.1002/psc.810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
To identify rules for the design of efficient CPPs that can deliver therapeutic agents such as nucleic acids (DNAs, siRNAs) or proteins and PNAs into subcellular compartments, we compared the properties of several primary and secondary amphipathic CPPs. Studies performed with lipid monolayers at the air-water interface have enabled identification of the nature of the lipid-peptide interactions and characterization of the influence of phospholipids on the ability of these peptides to penetrate into lipidic media. Penetration and compression experiments reveal that both peptides interact strongly with phospholipids, and observations on Langmuir-Blodgett transfers indicate that they can modify the lipid organization. Conformational investigations indicate that the lipid-peptide interactions govern the conformational state(s) of the peptides. On the basis of the ability of both peptides to promote ion permeation through both natural and artificial membranes, models illustrating the translocation processes have been proposed. One is based on the formation of a beta-barrel pore-like structure while another is based on the association of helices.
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30
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Plénat T, Boichot S, Dosset P, Milhiet PE, Le Grimellec C. Coexistence of a two-states organization for a cell-penetrating peptide in lipid bilayer. Biophys J 2005; 89:4300-9. [PMID: 16199494 PMCID: PMC1366994 DOI: 10.1529/biophysj.105.061697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Primary amphipathic cell-penetrating peptides transport cargoes across cell membranes with high efficiency and low lytic activity. These primary amphipathic peptides were previously shown to form aggregates or supramolecular structures in mixed lipid-peptide monolayers, but their behavior in lipid bilayers remains to be characterized. Using atomic force microscopy, we have examined the interactions of P(alpha), a primary amphipathic cell-penetrating peptide which remains alpha-helical whatever the environment, with dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) bilayers. Addition of P(alpha) at concentrations up to 5 mol % markedly modified the supported bilayers topography. Long and thin filaments lying flat at the membrane surface coexisted with deeply embedded peptides which induced a local thinning of the bilayer. On the other hand, addition of P(alpha) only exerted very limited effects on the corresponding liposome's bilayer physical state, as estimated from differential scanning calorimetry and diphenylhexatriene fluorescence anisotropy experiments. The use of a gel-fluid phase separated supported bilayers made of a dioleoylphosphatidylcholine/dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine mixture confirmed both the existence of long filaments, which at low peptide concentration were preferentially localized in the fluid phase domains and the membrane disorganizing effects of 5 mol % P(alpha). The simultaneous two-states organization of P(alpha), at the membrane surface and deeply embedded in the bilayer, may be involved in the transmembrane carrier function of this primary amphipathic peptide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Plénat
- Nanostructures et Complexes Membranaires, Centre de Biochimie Structurale, INSERM UMR 554, CNRS UMR 5048-Université Montpellier I, 34090 Montpellier Cedex, France
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31
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Herbig ME, Fromm U, Leuenberger J, Krauss U, Beck-Sickinger AG, Merkle HP. Bilayer interaction and localization of cell penetrating peptides with model membranes: A comparative study of a human calcitonin (hCT)-derived peptide with pVEC and pAntp(43–58). BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2005; 1712:197-211. [PMID: 15919050 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2005.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2005] [Revised: 04/07/2005] [Accepted: 04/18/2005] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are able to translocate problematic therapeutic cargoes across cellular membranes. The exact mechanisms of translocation are still under investigation. However, evidence for endocytic uptake is increasing. We investigated the interactions of CPPs with phospholipid bilayers as first step of translocation. To this purpose, we employed four independent techniques, comprising (i) liposome buffer equilibrium dialysis, (ii) Trp fluorescence quenching, (iii) fluorescence polarization, and (iv) determination of zeta-potentials. Using unilamellar vesicles (LUVs) of different phospholipid composition, we compared weakly cationic human calcitonin (hCT)-derived peptides with the oligocationic CPPs pVEC and penetratin (pAntp). Apparent partition coefficients of hCT-derived peptides in neutral POPC LUVs were dependent on amino acid composition and secondary structure; partitioning in negatively charged POPC/POPG (80:20) LUVs was increased and mainly governed by electrostatic interactions. For hCT(9-32) and its derivatives, D values raised from about 100-200 in POPC to about 1000 to 1500 when negatively charged lipids were present. Localization profiles of CPPs obtained by Trp fluorescence quenching were dependent on the charge density of LUVs. In POPC/POPG, hCT-derived CPPs were located on the bilayer surface, whereas pVEC and pAntp resided deeper in the membrane. In POPG LUVs, an increase of fluorescence polarization was observed for pVEC and pAntp but not for hCT-derived peptides. Generally, we found strong peptide-phospholipid interactions, especially when negatively charged lipids were present.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael E Herbig
- Drug Formulation and Delivery Group, Department of Chemistry and Applied BioSciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich (ETH Zurich), Wolfgang-Pauli-Strasse 10, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
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32
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Lochmann D, Jauk E, Zimmer A. Drug delivery of oligonucleotides by peptides. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2005; 58:237-51. [PMID: 15296952 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2004.03.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2004] [Accepted: 03/11/2004] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Oligonucleotides are promising tools for in vitro studies where specific downregulation of proteins is required. In addition, antisense oligonucleotides have been studied in vivo and have entered clinical trials as new chemical entities with various therapeutic targets such as antiviral drugs or for tumour treatments. The formulation of these substances were widely studied in the past. With this review we will focus on peptides used as drug delivery vehicles for oligonucleotides. Different strategies are summarised. Cationically charged peptides from different origins were used e.g. as cellular penetration enhancers or nuclear localisation tool. Examples are given for Poly-L-lysine alone or in combination with receptor specific targeting ligands such as asialoglycoprotein, galactose, growth factors or transferrin. Another large group of peptides are those with membrane translocating properties. Fusogenic peptides rich in lysine or arginine are reviewed. They have been used for DNA complexation and condensation to form transport vehicles. Some of them, additionally, have so called nuclear localisation properties. Here, DNA sequences, which facilitate intracellular trafficking of macromolecules to the nucleus were explored. Summarizing the present literature, peptides are interesting pharmaceutical excipients and it seems to be feasible to combine the specific properties of peptides to improve drug delivery devices for oligonucleotides in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk Lochmann
- Institute for Pharmaceutical Technology, Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University, Frankfurtam Main, Germany
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33
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The use of Pep: Trans vectors for the delivery of drugs into the central nervous system. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ics.2005.02.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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34
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Liu W, Prausnitz JM, Blanch HW. Amyloid fibril formation by peptide LYS (11-36) in aqueous trifluoroethanol. Biomacromolecules 2005; 5:1818-23. [PMID: 15360293 DOI: 10.1021/bm049841e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Peptide LYS (11-36), derived from the beta-sheet region of T4 lysozyme, forms an amyloid fibril in aqueous trifluoroethanol (TFE) at elevated temperature. The peptide has a moderate alpha-helix content in 20 and 50% (v/v) TFE solution; large quantities of fibrils were formed after incubation at 55 degrees C for 2 weeks as monitored by a thioflavin T fluorescence assay. No fibrils were observed when the peptide initially existed predominantly as a random coil or as a complete alpha helix. Our results suggest that a moderate amount of alpha helix and random coil present in the peptide initially facilitates the fibril-formation process, but a high alpha-helix content inhibits fibril formation. Transmission electron microscopy revealed several types of fibril morphologies at different TFE concentrations. The fibrils were highly twisted and consisted of interleaved protofilaments in 50% TFE, while smooth and flat ribbonlike fibrils were found in 20% TFE. In 50% TFE, the fibril growth rate of LYS (11-36) was found to depend strongly on peptide concentration and seeding but was insensitive to solution pH and ionic strength.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Liu
- Chemical Engineering Department, University of California, Berkeley, 94720, USA
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35
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Abstract
In the past decade, several peptides that can translocate cell membranes have been identified. Some of these peptides, which can be divided into different families, have short amino acid sequences (10-27 residues in length) and enter the cell by a receptor-independent mechanism. Furthermore, these peptides are capable of internalizing hydrophilic cargoes. Although the detailed mechanism by which these molecules enter cells is poorly understood, their ability to traverse the membrane into the cytoplasm has provided a new and powerful biological tool for transporting drugs across cell membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamal Temsamani
- Synt:em, Parc Scientifique Georges Besse, 30000 Nîmes, France.
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36
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Gräslund A, Eriksson LEG. Properties and applications of cell-penetrating peptides. GENETIC ENGINEERING 2004; 26:19-31. [PMID: 15387291 DOI: 10.1007/978-0-306-48573-2_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- A Gräslund
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Stockholm University, S-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
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37
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Fernández-Carneado J, Kogan MJ, Pujals S, Giralt E. Amphipathic peptides and drug delivery. Biopolymers 2004; 76:196-203. [PMID: 15054899 DOI: 10.1002/bip.10585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The discovery of cell-penetrating peptides as gene delivery systems and the interest in the mechanism by which these vectors cross the cell membrane have generated a large number of studies. Among the parameters involved in the translocation process, controversy has arisen about the role of the amphipathicity of the carriers in the interaction and reorganization of the cell membrane. In this review we have summarized the vectors with primary or secondary amphipathicity related to secondary structure. Some of the insights into the relationship between the aggregation state of the peptide at the concentrations used for internalization studies and its interaction with the cell membrane result from our contribution to the field with a new family of amphipathic proline-rich peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jimena Fernández-Carneado
- Institut de Recerca Biomèdica de Barcelona, Parc Científic de Barcelona, Josep Samitier 1-5, E-08028 Barcelona, Spain
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38
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Drin G, Cottin S, Blanc E, Rees AR, Temsamani J. Studies on the internalization mechanism of cationic cell-penetrating peptides. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:31192-201. [PMID: 12783857 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m303938200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 402] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
A great deal of data has been amassed suggesting that cationic peptides are able to translocate into eucaryotic cells in a temperature-independent manner. Although such peptides are widely used to promote the intracellular delivery of bioactive molecules, the mechanism by which this cell-penetrating activity occurs still remains unclear. Here, we present an in vitro study of the cellular uptake of peptides, originally deriving from protegrin (the SynB peptide vectors), that have also been shown to enhance the transport of drugs across the blood-brain barrier. In parallel, we have examined the internalization process of two lipid-interacting peptides, SynB5 and pAntp-(43-58), the latter corresponding to the translocating segment of the Antennapedia homeodomain. We report a quantitative study of the time- and dose-dependence of internalization and demonstrate that these peptides accumulate inside vesicular structures. Furthermore, we have examined the role of endocytotic pathways in this process using a variety of metabolic and endocytosis inhibitors. We show that the internalization of these peptides is a temperature- and energy-dependent process and that endosomal transport is a key component of the mechanism. Altogether, our results suggest that SynB and pAntp-(43-58) peptides penetrate into cells by an adsorptive-mediated endocytosis process rather than temperature-independent translocation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Drin
- Synt:em, Institut de Génétique Moléculaire, 1919 Route de Mende, 34293 Montpellier Cedex 5, France
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39
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Lundberg P, Magzoub M, Lindberg M, Hällbrink M, Jarvet J, Eriksson LEG, Langel U, Gräslund A. Cell membrane translocation of the N-terminal (1-28) part of the prion protein. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2002; 299:85-90. [PMID: 12435392 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-291x(02)02595-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The N-terminal (1-28) part of the mouse prion protein (PrP) is a cell penetrating peptide, capable of transporting large hydrophilic cargoes through a cell membrane. Confocal fluorescence microscopy shows that it transports the protein avidin (67kDa) into several cell lines. The (1-28) peptide has a strong tendency for aggregation and beta-structure formation, particularly in interaction with negatively charged phospholipid membranes. The findings have implications for how prion proteins with uncleaved signal peptides in the N-termini may enter into cells, which is important for infection. The secondary structure conversion into beta-structure may be relevant as a seed for the conversion into the scrapie (PrP(Sc)) form of the protein and its amyloidic transformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Lundberg
- Department of Neurochemistry and Neurotoxicology, Stockholm University, SE-106 91, Stockholm, Sweden
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40
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Drin G, Rousselle C, Scherrmann JM, Rees AR, Temsamani J. Peptide delivery to the brain via adsorptive-mediated endocytosis: advances with SynB vectors. AAPS PHARMSCI 2002; 4:E26. [PMID: 12645998 PMCID: PMC2751315 DOI: 10.1208/ps040426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Biological membranes normally restrict the passage of hydrophilic molecules. This impairs the use of a wide variety of drugs for biomedical applications. To overcome this problem, researchers have developed strategies that involve conjugating the molecule of interest to one of a number of peptide entities that are efficiently transported across the cell membranes. In the past decade, a number of different peptide families with the ability to cross the cell membranes have been identified. Certain of these families enter the cells by a receptor-independent mechanism, are short (10-27 amino acid residues), and can deliver successfully various cargoes across the cell membrane into the cytoplasm or nucleus. Surprisingly, some of these vectors, the SynB vectors, have also shown the ability to deliver hydrophilic molecules across the blood-brain barrier, one of the major obstacles to the development of drugs to combat diseases affecting the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Drin
- Syntiem, Parc Scientifique Georges Besse, 30000 Nîmes, France
| | | | - Jean-Michel Scherrmann
- Hôpital Fernand Widal, Université René Descartes Paris 5 and INSERM U26, 200 Rue du Faubourg Saint-Denis, 75475 Paris Cedex 10, France
| | - Anthony R Rees
- Syntiem, Parc Scientifique Georges Besse, 30000 Nîmes, France
| | - Jamal Temsamani
- Syntiem, Parc Scientifique Georges Besse, 30000 Nîmes, France
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41
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Abstract
Signaling pathways leading to exocytosis and arachidonate release from serosal mast cells by basic secretagogues, including cationic peptides, arise from the involvement of betagamma subunits from G(i2) and G(i3) GTP-binding proteins. The original concept that basic secretagogues directly interact with G proteins implicated the entry of secretagogues into mast cells. This has been demonstrated only for the neuropeptide substance P. Basic secretagogues might share a common mechanism of penetration with the newly described cell-penetrating peptides. The involvement of some membrane transporter or non-selective membrane receptor to basic secretagogues cannot be excluded.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xavier Ferry
- Laboratoire de Neuroimmunopharmacologie, Faculté de Pharmacie, INSERM U425, Université Louis Pasteur-Strasbourg I, bp 24, 67401 Illkirch Cedex, France
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Heitz F, Van Mau N. Protein structural changes induced by their uptake at interfaces. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2002; 1597:1-11. [PMID: 12009396 DOI: 10.1016/s0167-4838(02)00273-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
For insertion into lipidic media, most hydrosoluble proteins must cross the lipid-water interface and thus undergo conformational transitions. According to their chemical sequences these transitions may be restricted to changes involving only the tertiary structure, while for other proteins this environment modification will induce drastic changes such as the unfolding of large domains. The structural transitions are mainly governed by the presence of hydrophobic domains and/or by the existence of induced amphipathic properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frédéric Heitz
- CRBM-CNRS, UPR 1086, 1919 route de Mende, F-34293 Montpellier Cedex 5, France.
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43
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Ruzza P, Donella-Deana A, Calderan A, Brunati A, Massimino ML, Elardo S, Mattiazzo A, Pinna LA, Borin G. Antennapedia/HS1 chimeric phosphotyrosyl peptide: conformational properties, binding capability to c-Fgr SH2 domain and cell permeability. Biopolymers 2002; 60:290-306. [PMID: 11774232 DOI: 10.1002/1097-0282(2001)60:4<290::aid-bip9991>3.0.co;2-m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
With the aim of interfering with the signaling pathways mediated by the SH2 domains of Src-like tyrosine kinases, we synthesized a tyrosyl-phospho decapeptide, corresponding to the sequence 392-401 of HS1 protein, which inhibits the secondary phosphorylation of HS1 protein catalyzed by the Src-like kinases c-Fgr or Lyn. This phospho-peptide was modified to enter cells by coupling to the third helix of Antennapedia homeodomain, which is able to translocate across cell membranes. Here we present CD and fluorescence studies on the conformational behavior in membrane-mimicking environments and on lipid interactions of Antennapedia fragment and its chimeric phosphorylated and unphosphorylated derivatives. These studies evidenced that electrostatic rather than amphiphilic interactions determine the peptide adsorption on lipids. Experiments performed with recombinant protein containing the SH2 domain of c-Fgr fused with GST and with isolated erythrocyte membranes demonstrated that the presence of the N-terminal Antennapedia fragment only slightly affects the binding of the phospho-HS1 peptide to the SH2 domain. In fact, it has been shown that in isolated erythrocyte membranes, both phospho-HS1 peptide and its chimeric derivative greatly affect either the SH2-mediated recruitment of the c-Fgr to the transmembrane protein band 3 and the following phosphorylation of the protein catalyzed by the Src-like kinase c-Fgr. The ability of the chimeric phospho-peptide to enter cells has been demonstrated by confocal microscopy analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Ruzza
- CNR-Biopolymers Research Center, via Marzolo 1, Padua, 35131 Italy.
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44
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Pellegrin P, Fernandez A, Lamb NJC, Bennes R. Macromolecular uptake is a spontaneous event during mitosis in cultured fibroblasts: implications for vector-dependent plasmid transfection. Mol Biol Cell 2002; 13:570-8. [PMID: 11854413 PMCID: PMC65650 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.01-06-0280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The process through which macromolecules penetrate the plasma membrane of mammalian cells remains poorly defined. We have examined whether natural cellular events modulate the capacity of cells to take up agents applied extraneously. Herein, we report that during mitosis and in a cell type-independent manner, cells exhibit a natural ability to absorb agents present in the extracellular environment up to 150 kDa as assessed using fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextrans. This event is exclusive to the mitotic period and not observed during G0, G1, S, or G2 phase. During mitosis, starting in advanced prophase, oligonucleotides, active enzymes, and polypeptides are efficiently taken into mitotic cells. This uptake of macromolecules during mitosis still takes place in the presence of cytochalasin D or nocodazole, showing no requirement for intact microtubules or actin filaments in this process. However, cell rounding up, which still takes place in the presence of either of these drugs in mitotic cells, appears to be a key event in this process. Indeed, limited trypsinization of adherent cells mimics both the cell retraction and macromolecule uptake observed as cells enter mitosis. A plasmid DNA encoding green fluorescent protein (3.3Mda) coated with an 18 amino acid peptide is efficiently expressed when applied onto synchronized G2/M fibroblasts, whereas little or no expression is observed when the coated plasmid is applied onto asynchronous cell cultures. This shows that such coating peptides are only efficient for their encapsulating and protective effect on the plasmid DNA to be "vectorized" rather than acting as true vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Pellegrin
- Institut de Génétique Humaine, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UPR 1142, Montpellier, France
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45
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McIntosh TJ, Vidal A, Simon SA. The energetics of peptide-lipid interactions: Modulation by interfacial dipoles and cholesterol. PEPTIDE-LIPID INTERACTIONS 2002. [DOI: 10.1016/s1063-5823(02)52013-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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46
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Song M, Shao H, Mujeeb A, James TL, Miller WL. Molten-globule structure and membrane binding of the N-terminal protease-resistant domain (63-193) of the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR). Biochem J 2001; 356:151-8. [PMID: 11336647 PMCID: PMC1221823 DOI: 10.1042/0264-6021:3560151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The first step in steroidogenesis is the movement of cholesterol from the outer to inner mitochondrial membrane; this movement is facilitated by the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR). StAR has molten-globule properties at low pH and a protease-resistant N-terminal domain at pH 4 and pH 8 comprising residues 63-193. To explore the mechanism of action of StAR we investigated the structural properties of the bacterially expressed N-terminal domain (63-193 StAR) using CD, limited proteolysis and NMR. Far- and near-UV CD showed that the amount of secondary structure was greater at acidic than at neutral pH, but there was little tertiary structure at any pH. Unlike 63-193 StAR liberated from N-62 StAR by proteolysis, biosynthetic 63-193 StAR was no longer resistant to trypsin or proteinase K at pH 7, or to pepsin at pH 4. Addition of trifluoroethanol and SDS increased secondary structure at pH 7, and dodecylphosphocholine and CHAPS increased secondary structure at pH 2, pH 4 and pH 7. However, none of these conditions induced tertiary structure, as monitored by near-UV CD or NMR. Liposomes of phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylserine and their mixture increased secondary structure of 63-193 StAR at pH 7, as monitored by far-UV CD, and stable protein-liposome complexes were identified by gel-permeation chromatography. These results provide further evidence that the N-terminal domain of StAR is a molten globule, and provide evidence that this conformation facilitates the interaction of the N-terminal domain of StAR with membranes. We suggest that this interaction is the key to understanding the mechanism of StAR's action.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Song
- Department of Pediatrics, Building MR-IV, Room 209, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143-0978, USA
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Dé E, Chaloin L, Heitz A, Méry J, Molle G, Heitz F. Conformation and ion channel properties of a five-helix Bundle protein. J Pept Sci 2001; 7:41-9. [PMID: 11245204 DOI: 10.1002/psc.293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The primary amphipathic peptide Ac-Met-Gly-Leu-Gly-Leu-Trp-Leu-Leu-Val-Leu10-Ala-Ala-Ala-Leu-Gln-Gly-Ala-Lys-Lys-Lys20-Arg-Lys-Val-NH-CH2-CH2-SH called SPM was able to induce formation of ion channels into planar lipid bilayers with main conductance values of 75 and 950 pS in 1 M KCl. The 75 pS value can be attributed to an aggregate composed of five monomers since the corresponding five-unit bundle (5-SPM) also presented a 70 pS channels under the same conditions. The upper 950 pS level would be generated by a hexameric aggregate. Ion channels induced by both SPM and its pentameric bundle are slightly cation selective but not voltage-dependent. The structural studies showed that the SPM and 5-SPM possess mainly an alpha-helical structure (approximately 40%) and are strongly embedded in the bilayer. This behaviour and the strong hydrophobic interactions occurring between helices in the bundle induce a strong stabilization of 5-SPM in the bilayer and would be responsible for the stepwise current fluctuations observed during the incorporation of 5-SPM into the membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Dé
- UMR 6522 CNRS, IFRMP 23, Faculté des Sciences, Mont-Saint-Aignan, France
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48
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Baleja JD. Structure determination of membrane-associated proteins from nuclear magnetic resonance data. Anal Biochem 2001; 288:1-15. [PMID: 11141300 DOI: 10.1006/abio.2000.4815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
This Review covers the delineation and optimization of protein-lipid systems for study using solution-state NMR spectroscopy. The first half presents the necessary background for a membrane protein biochemist to initiate collaboration with an NMR spectroscopist. The second half provides guidelines for the spectroscopist on data collection, analysis for obtaining conformational information, and structure generation and assessment. Although the emphasis is on the study of peptides in detergent micelles, methods are outlined for larger membrane-associated proteins and for use of other solubilizing agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- J D Baleja
- Department of Biochemistry, Tufts University School of Medicine, 136 Harrison Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts, 02111, USA
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49
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Abstract
Antisense oligonucleotides (ONs) have several properties that make them attractive as therapeutic agents. Hybridization of antisense ONs to their complementary nucleic acid sequences by Watson-Crick base pairing is a highly selective and efficient process. Design of therapeutic antisense agents can be made more rationally as compared to most traditional drugs, i.e., they can be designed on the basis of target RNA sequences and their secondary structures. Despite these advantages, the design and use of antisense ONs as therapeutic agents are still faced with several obstacles. One major obstacle is their inefficient cellular uptake and poor accessibility to target sites. In this article, we will discuss key barriers affecting ON delivery and approaches to overcome these barriers. Current methods of ON delivery will be reviewed with an emphasis on novel non-endocytic methods of delivery. ONs are taken up by cells via an endocytic process. The process of ON release from endosomes is a very inefficient process and, hence, ONs end up being degraded in the endosomes. Thus, ONs do not reach their intended site of action in the cytoplasm or nucleus. Delivery systems ensuring a cytoplasmic delivery of ONs have the potential to increase the amount of ON reaching the target. Here, we shall examine various ON delivery methods that bypass the endosomal pathway. The advantages and disadvantages of these methods compared to other existing methods of ON delivery will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Dokka
- West Virginia University, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, P.O. Box 9530, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
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Scheller A, Wiesner B, Melzig M, Bienert M, Oehlke J. Evidence for an amphipathicity independent cellular uptake of amphipathic cell-penetrating peptides. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 2000; 267:6043-50. [PMID: 10998065 DOI: 10.1046/j.1432-1327.2000.01681.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The cellular uptake of a peptide set derived from membrane-permeable alpha-helical amphipathic peptides by stepwise alterations of structure forming propensity and charge was studied by confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) combined with HPLC. For CLSM monitoring, an online protocol was employed that avoided bias of the uptake results by washout. Using this protocol, extensive fluorescence, approaching the intensity of the external peptide, was observed in the cytosol and nucleus within minutes in all cases, irrespective of the degree of amphipathicity. HPLC analyses of the cell lysates revealed the unmetabolized peptides to be the predominant source of the intracellular fluorescence. Significant amphipathicity-dependent differences became apparent only after washing the peptide-loaded cells, reflecting the effects of amphipathicity on resistance to wash out. Exposure of the cells to the peptides at 37 and 0 degrees C led to similar results, indicating the nonendocytic character of the uptake. With a view to practical applications, the results of the present study open the possibility of exploiting nonamphipathic peptides as vectors for translocating polar compounds into the cell interior, which would circumvent substantial obstacles currently connected with the use of amphipathic vector peptides, such as membrane toxicity and low solubility. Moreover, differences in the uptake of several members of the investigated peptide series into different cell types present a promising basis for the design of cell-type specific vector peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Scheller
- Institute of Molecular Pharmacology, Berlin, Germany
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