Bio-based polymeric composites comprising wood flour as filler

Effect of the Presence of Lignin from Woodflour on the Compostability of PHA-Based Biocomposites: Disintegration, Biodegradation and Microbial Dynamics

Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) has gained attention as a possible substitute for conventional polymers that could be integrated into the organic recycling system. Biocomposites with 15% of pure cellulose (TC) and woodflour (WF) were prepared to analyze the role of lignin on their compostability (58 °C) by tracking the mass loss, CO₂ evolution, and the microbial population. Realistic dimensions for typical plastic products (400 µm films), as well as their service performance (thermal stability, rheology), were taken into account in this hybrid study. WF showed lower adhesion with the polymer than TC and favored PHBV thermal degradation during processing, also affecting its rheological behavior. Although all materials disintegrated in 45 days and mineralized in less than 60 days, lignin from woodflour was found to slow down the bioassimilation of PHBV/WF by limiting the access of enzymes and water to easier degradable cellulose and polymer matrix. According to the highest and the lowest weight loss rates, TC incorporation allowed for higher mesophilic bacterial and fungal counts, while WF seemed to hinder fungal growth. At the initial steps, fungi and yeasts seem to be key factors in facilitating the later metabolization of the materials by bacteria.

Novel Production Methods of Polyhydroxyalkanoates and Their Innovative Uses in Biomedicine and Industry

Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), a biodegradable polymer obtained from microorganisms and plants, have been widely used in biomedical applications and devices, such as sutures, cardiac valves, bone scaffold, and drug delivery of compounds with pharmaceutical interests, as well as in food packaging. This review focuses on the use of polyhydroxyalkanoates beyond the most common uses, aiming to inform about the potential uses of the biopolymer as a biosensor, cosmetics, drug delivery, flame retardancy, and electrospinning, among other interesting uses. The novel applications are based on the production and composition of the polymer, which can be modified by genetic engineering, a semi-synthetic approach, by changing feeding carbon sources and/or supplement addition, among others. The future of PHA is promising, and despite its production costs being higher than petroleum-based plastics, tools given by synthetic biology, bioinformatics, and machine learning, among others, have allowed for great production yields, monomer and polymer functionalization, stability, and versatility, a key feature to increase the uses of this interesting family of polymers.

Superiority of Cellulose Non-Solvent Chemical Modification over Solvent-Involving Treatment: Solution for Green Chemistry (Part I)

In the following article, a new approach of cellulose modification, which does not incorporate any solvents (NS), is introduced. It is compared for the first time with the traditional solvent-involving (S) treatment. The analysed non-solvent modification process is carried out in a planetary mill. This provides the opportunity for cellulose mechanical degradation, decreasing its size, simultaneously with ongoing silane coupling agent grafting. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) indicated the possibility of intense cleavage of the glucose rings in the cellulose chains during the mechano-chemical treatment. This effect was proved with dynamic light scattering (DLS) results—the size of the particles decreased. Moreover, according to differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) investigation, modified samples exhibited decreased moisture content and a drop in the adsorbed water evaporation temperature. The performed research proved the superiority of the mechano-chemical treatment over regular chemical modification. The one-pot bio-filler modification approach, as a solution fulfilling green chemistry requirements, as well as compromising the sustainable development rules, was presented. Furthermore, this research may contribute significantly to the elimination of toxic solvents from cellulose modification processes.

(Bio)Degradable Polymeric Materials for Sustainable Future-Part 3: Degradation Studies of the PHA/Wood Flour-Based Composites and Preliminary Tests of Antimicrobial Activity

The need for a cost reduction of the materials derived from (bio)degradable polymers forces research development into the formation of biocomposites with cheaper fillers. As additives can be made using the post-consumer wood, generated during wood products processing, re-use of recycled waste materials in the production of biocomposites can be an environmentally friendly way to minimalize and/or utilize the amount of the solid waste. Also, bioactive materials, which possess small amounts of antimicrobial additives belong to a very attractive packaging industry solution. This paper presents a study into the biodegradation, under laboratory composting conditions, of the composites that consist of poly[(R)-3-hydroxybutyrate-co-4-hydroxybutyrate)] and wood flour as a polymer matrix and natural filler, respectively. Thermogravimetric analysis, differential scanning calorimetry and scanning electron microscopy were used to evaluate the degradation progress of the obtained composites with different amounts of wood flour. The degradation products were characterized by multistage electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. Also, preliminary tests of the antimicrobial activity of selected materials with the addition of nisin were performed. The obtained results suggest that the different amount of filler has a significant influence on the degradation profile.

Thermal Behavior of Green Cellulose-Filled Thermoplastic Elastomer Polymer Blends

A recently developed cellulose hybrid chemical treatment consists of two steps: solvent exchange (with ethanol or hexane) and chemical grafting of maleic anhydride (MA) on the surface of fibers. It induces a significant decrease in cellulose moisture content and causes some changes in the thermal resistance of analyzed blend samples, as well as surface properties. The thermal characteristics of ethylene-norbornene copolymer (TOPAS) blends filled with hybrid chemically modified cellulose fibers (UFC100) have been widely described on the basis of differential scanning calorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis. Higher thermal stability is observed for the materials filled with the fibers which were dried before any of the treatments carried out. Dried cellulose filled samples start to degrade at approximately 330 °C while undried UFC100 specimens begin to degrade around 320 °C. Interestingly, the most elevated thermal resistance was detected for samples filled with cellulose altered only with solvents (both ethanol and hexane). In order to support the supposed thermal resistance trends of prepared blend materials, apparent activation energies assigned to cellulose degradation (E_A1) and polymer matrix decomposition (E_A2) have been calculated and presented in the article. It may be evidenced that apparent activation energies assigned to the first decomposition step are higher in case of the systems filled with UFC100 dried prior to the modification process. Moreover, the results have been enriched using surface free energy analysis of the polymer blends. The surface free energy polar part (Ep) raises considering samples filled with not dried UFC100. On the other hand, when cellulose fibers are dried prior to the modification process, then the blend sample’s dispersive part of surface free energy is increased with respect to that containing unmodified fiber. As polymer blend Ep exhibits higher values reflecting enhanced material degradation potential, the cellulose fibers employment leads to more eco-friendly production and responsible waste management. This is in accordance with the rules of sustainable development.

Recent developments in the synthesis of poly(hydroxybutyrate) based biocomposites

Poly(hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) has become an attractive biomaterial in research and development for past few years. It is natural bio-based aliphatic polyester produced by many types of bacteria. Due to its biodegradable, biocompatible, and eco-friendly nature, PHB can be used in line with bioactive species. However, high production cost, thermal instability, and poor mechanical properties limit its desirable applications. So there is need to incorporate PHB with other materials or biopolymers for the development of some novel PHB based biocomposites for value addition. Many attempts have been employed to incorporate PHB with other biomaterials (or biopolymers) to develop sustainable biocomposites. In this review, some recent developments in the synthesis of PHB based biocomposites and their biomedical, packaging and tissue engineering applications have been focused. The development of biodegradable PHB based biocomposites with improved mechanical properties could be used to overcome its native limitations hence to open new possibilities for industrial applications.

Variable temperature solid-state NMR spectral and relaxation analyses of the impregnation of polyethylene glycol (PEG) into coniferous wood

To investigate the behaviours of polyethylene glycol (PEG) and its interaction with biomass constituents in coniferous wood (Japanese cypress), variable temperature solid-state NMR spectra and relaxation times were measured from 20-80 °C. Signal intensities in the 1H and 13C PST-MAS NMR spectra changed depending on both the measurement temperature and the melting point of the impregnated PEG. In the 13C CP-MAS NMR spectra with increasing temperature, although the signal intensities of biomass constituents slightly decreased, signal intensities of PEG molecules in the cypress maximized at 80 °C. PEG impregnation into cypress decreased the T 1H values at 80 °C for short to medium chain PEG in the liquid phase while it decreased T 1H values at ambient temperature for long chain PEG in the solid phase because the interactions of PEG molecules and the biomass constituents of coniferous wood were different for different chain lengths of the PEG. These variable temperature measurements of both solid-state NMR spectra and relaxation time indicated that impregnation of longer chain PEG molecules produced higher hydrophobicity because of the increased steric hinderance of PEG attached to carbohydrates. The variable temperature measurements also showed that long chain PEG molecules were restricted to the lumen while short to medium chain length PEG molecules infiltrated into the intercellular region of the cell wall in addition to the lumen. These results obtained from the variable temperature NMR measurements were also supported by ATR-IR spectroscopy analyses.

Alternating and regioregular copolymers with high refractive index from COS and biomass-derived epoxides

The catalytic synthesis of well-defined COS- and biomass-derived copolymer with a high refractive index is described.

Enhancement of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) thermal and processing stability using a bio-waste derived additive

Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) is a biodegradable polymer, whose applicability is limited by its brittleness and narrow processing window. In this study a pomace extract (EP), from the bio-waste of winery industry, was used as thermal and processing stabilizer for PHB, aimed to engineer a totally bio-based system. The results showed that EP enhanced the thermal stability of PHB, which maintained high molecular weights after processing. This evidence was in agreement with the slower decrease in viscosity over time observed by rheological tests. EP also affected the melt crystallization kinetics and the overall crystallinity extent. Finally, dynamic mechanical and tensile tests showed that EP slightly improved the polymer ductility. The results are intriguing, in view of the development of sustainable alternatives to synthetic polymer additives, thus increasing the applicability of bio-based materials. Moreover, the reported results demonstrated the feasibility of the conversion of an agro-food by-product into a bio-resource in an environmentally friendly and cost-effective way.

Production of natural fiber reinforced thermoplastic composites through the use of polyhydroxybutyrate-rich biomass

Previous research has demonstrated that production of natural fiber reinforced thermoplastic composites (NFRTCs) utilizing bacterially-derived pure polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) does not yield a product that is cost competitive with synthetic plastic-based NFRTCs. Moreover, the commercial production of pure PHB is not without environmental impacts. To address these issues, we integrated unpurified PHB in NFRTC construction, thereby eliminating a significant energy and cost sink (ca. 30-40%) while concurrently yielding a fully biologically based commodity. PHB-rich biomass synthesized with the microorganism Azotobacter vinelandii UWD was utilized to manufacture NFRTCs with wood flour. Resulting composites exhibited statistically similar bending strength properties despite relatively different PHB contents. Moreover, the presence of microbial cell debris allowed for NFRTC processing at significantly reduced polymer content, relative to pure PHB-based NFRTCs. Results further indicate that current commercial PHB production yields are sufficiently high to produce composites comparable to those manufactured with purified PHB.

Thorough chemical modification of wood-based lignocellulosic materials in ionic liquids

Homogenous acylation and carbanilation reactions of wood-based lignocellulosic materials have been investigated in ionic liquids. We have found that highly substituted lignocellulosic esters can be obtained under mild conditions (2 h, 70 degrees C) by reacting wood dissolved in ionic liquids with acetyl chloride, benzoyl chloride, and acetic anhydride in the presence of pyridine. In the absence of pyridine, extensive degradation of the wood components was found to occur. Highly substituted carbanilated lignocellulosic material was also obtained in the absence of base in ionic liquid. These chemical modifications were confirmed by infrared spectroscopy, (1)H NMR, and quantitative (31)P NMR of the resulting derivatives. The latter technique permitted the degrees of substitution to be determined, which were found to vary between 81% and 95% for acetylation, benzoylation, and carbanilation, accompanied by similarly high gains in weight percent values. Thermogravimetric measurements showed that the resulting materials exhibit different thermal stabilities from those of the starting wood, while differential scanning calorimetry showed discrete new thermal transitions for these derivatives. Scanning electron microscopy showed the complete absence of fibrous characteristics for these derivatives, but instead, a homogeneous porous, powdery appearance was apparent. A number of our reactions were also carried out in completely recycled ionic liquids, verifying their utility for potential applications beyond the laboratory bench.

Comparative Life Cycle Studies on Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate)-Based Composites as Potential Replacement for Conventional Petrochemical Plastics

A cradle-to-grave environmental life cycle assessment (LCA) of a few poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) based composites has been performed and was compared to commodity petrochemical polymers. The end products studied are a cathode ray tube (CRT) monitor housing (conventionally produced from high-impact polystyrene, HIPS) and the internal panels of an average car (conventionally produced from glass-fibers-filled polypropylene, PP-GF). The environmental impact is evaluated on the basis of nonrenewable energy use (NREU) and global warming potential over a 100 years time horizon (GWP100). Sugar cane bagasse (SCB) and nanoscaled organophilic montmorillonite (OMMT) are used as PHB fillers. The results obtained show that, despite the unsatisfying mechanical properties of PHB composites, depending on the type of filler and on the product, it is possible to reach lower environmental impacts than by use of conventional petrochemical polymers. These savings are mainly related to the PHB production process, while there are no improvements related to composites preparation. SCB-based composites seem to be environmentally superior to clay-based ones.