Interpenetrating Network Hydrogels via Simultaneous “Click Chemistry” and Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization

CuAAC-methacrylate interpenetrating polymer network (IPN) properties modulated by visible-light photoinitiation

Interpenetrating polymer networks (IPNs) are a class of materials with interwoven polymers that exhibit unique blended or enhanced properties useful to a variety of applications, ranging from restorative protective materials to conductive membranes and hydrophobic adhesives. The IPN formation kinetics can play a critical role in the development of the underlying morphology and in turn the properties of the material. Dual photoinitiation of copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne (CuAAC) and radical mediated methacrylate polymerization chemistries enable the manipulation of IPN microstructure and properties by controlling the kinetics of IPN formation via the intensity of the initiating light. Specifically, azide and alkyne-based polyethylene glycol monomers and tetraethylene glycol dimethacrylate (TEGDMA) were polymerized in a single pot to form IPNs and the properties were evaluated as a function of the photoinitiating light intensity. Morphological differences as a function of intensity were observed in the IPNs as determined by thermomechanical properties and phase-contrast imaging in tapping mode atomic force microscopy (AFM). At moderate intensities (20 mW/cm2) of visible light (470 nm), the TEGDMA polymerization gels first and therefore forms the underlying network scaffold. At low intensities (0.2 mW/cm2), the CuAAC polymerization can gel first. The ability to switch sequence of gelation and IPN trajectory (simultaneous vs. sequential), affords control over phase separation behavior. Thus, light not only allows for spatial and temporal control over the IPN formation but also provides control over their thermomechanical properties, representing a route for facile IPNs design, synthesis, and application.

Facile fabrication of a broad-spectrum starch/poly(α-l-lysine) hydrogel adsorbent with thermal/pH-sensitive IPN structure through simultaneous dual-click strategy

A thermal/pH-sensitive interpenetrating network (IPN) hydrogel was prepared facilely from starch and poly(α-l-lysine) through amino-anhydride and azide-alkyne double-click reactions in one pot. The synthesized polymers and hydrogels were systematically characterized using different analytical techniques such as Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), scanning electron microscope (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and rheometer. The preparation conditions of the IPN hydrogel were optimized via one-factor experiments. Experimental results indicated the IPN hydrogel possessed pH and temperature sensitivity. Effect of different parameters (pH, contact time, adsorbent dosage, initial concentration, ionic strength, and temperature) on adsorption behavior were investigated in monocomponent system with cationic methylene blue (MB) and anionic Eosin Y (EY) as model pollutants. The results indicated that the adsorption process of the IPN hydrogel for MB and EY followed pseudo-second-order kinetics. The adsorption data for MB and EY fitted well with the Langmuir isotherm model, indicating monolayer chemisorption. The good adsorption performance was due to various active functional groups (-COOH, -OH, -NH₂, etc.) in the IPN hydrogel. The strategy described here opens up a new way for preparing IPN hydrogel. The as-prepared hydrogel exhibits potential application and bright prospects as an adsorbent in wastewater treatment.

Introducing Semi-Interpenetrating Networks of Chitosan and Ammonium-Quaternary Polymers for the Effective Removal of Waterborne Pathogens from Wastewaters

The present work aims to study the influence of ammonium-quaternary monomers and chitosan, obtained from different sources, upon the effect of semi-interpenetrating polymer network (semi-IPN) hydrogels upon the removal of waterborne pathogens and bacteria from wastewater. To this end, the study was focused on using vinyl benzyl trimethylammonium chloride (VBTAC), a water-soluble monomer with known antibacterial properties, and mineral-enriched chitosan extracted from shrimp shells, to prepare the semi-IPNs. By using chitosan, which still contains the native minerals (mainly calcium carbonate), the study intends to justify that the stability and efficiency of the semi-IPN bactericidal devices can be modified and better improved. The new semi-IPNs were characterized for composition, thermal stability and morphology using well-known methods. Swelling degree (SD%) and the bactericidal effect assessed using molecular methods revealed that hydrogels made of chitosan derived from shrimp shell demonstrated the most competitive and promising potential for wastewater (WW) treatment.

Synthesis of Thermo-Responsive Block-Graft Copolymer Based on PCL and PEG Analogs, and Preparation of Hydrogel via Click Chemistry

Thermo-responsive cross-linkable mPEG-b-[PCL-g-(MEO2MA-co-OEGMA)]-b-mPEG was synthesized by ring-opening polymerization (ROP) and atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP). Then, the cross-linkable block-graft copolymer was used to prepare hydrogel via a copper-catalyzed 1,3-dipolar azide-alkyne cycloaddition reaction. The chemical structure and composition of copolymer were characterized by proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR), Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) and gel permeation chromatography (GPC). The self-assembly behaviors of the copolymer in aqueous solution were studied by UV spectrophotometer, fluorescence probes, the surface tension method, dynamic light scattering, and transmission electron microscopy. The results proved that the copolymer has excellent solubility and better temperature response. The three-dimensional network structure of the gels, observed by scanning electron microscopy at different temperatures, indicated that the gels have temperature response.

One-pot blue-light triggered tough interpenetrating polymeric network (IPN) using CuAAC and methacrylate reactions

An interpenetrating polymeric network (IPN) is formed in a one-pot blue-light activated scheme, where the step- and chain- growth polymerizations of the CuAAC and methacrylate reactions, respectively, are simultaneously triggered but proceed sequentially. The glassy IPN is polymerized under ambient conditions and is able to withstand high strain before failure owing to its significantly enhanced toughness. Additionally, this material exhibits shape memory attributes with readily tunable mechanical properties at high temperature.

Well-defined and biocompatible hydrogels with toughening and reversible photoresponsive properties

In the present study, novel hydrogels with extremely high strength, reversible photoresponsive and excellent biocompatible properties were prepared. The functional hydrogels were synthesized from a well-defined poly (ethylene glycol) polymer with spiropyran groups at a given position (PEG-SP) via a Cu(i)-catalyst Azide-Alkyne Cycloaddition (CuAAC) reaction. The molecular structures of the sequential intermediates for PEG-SP hydrogel preparation were verified by (1)HNMR and FT-IR. The mechanical property, swelling ratio, compression strength, surface hydrophilicity, and biocompatibility of the resulting hydrogel were characterized. Since spiropyran is pivotal to the switch in hydrophilicity on the hydrogel surface, the swelling ratio of PEG-SP hydrogel under Vis irradiation has a major decrease (155%). Before and after UV light irradiation, the contact angle of the hydrogel has a change of 13.8°. The photoresponsive property of this hydrogel was thus demonstrated, and such a property was also shown to be reversible. The well-defined PEG-SP hydrogel can also sustain a compressive stress of 49.8 MPa without any macro- or micro-damage, indicating its outstanding mechanical performance. Furthermore, it possessed excellent biocompatibility as demonstrated by its performance in an in vivo porcine subcutaneous implantation environment. No inflammation was observed and it got along well with the adjacent tissue. The above features indicate that PEG-SP hydrogels are promising as an implantable matrix for potential applications in biomaterial.

Star-shaped poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) featuring a porphyrin core: synthesis and metal complexation

We demonstrate the synthesis of star-shaped poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) featuring a porphyrin core starting from alkyne-functionalized porphyrin ([TPP-TB]4) and azide-functionalized poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) (PEtOx-N3) via copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC). The porphyrin core was further utilized for the complexation of either copper or iron within the central cavity. The obtained materials were investigated using a combination of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy, size-exclusion chromatography, and matrix assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. In the case of copper, the inclusion of the metal ion was achieved in a one-pot reaction during the CuAAC reaction for attaching the PEtOx-N3 arms.

Stimuli-responsive hydrogels prepared by simultaneous “click chemistry” and metal–ligand coordination

A novel strategy to synthesize stimuli-responsive metal-coordinated polymeric gels (MCPGs) via one-pot CuAAC and non-covalent metal coordination chemistry was demonstrated.

High strength biocompatible PEG single-network hydrogels

A single-chain PEG hydrogel with extremely high strength was prepared via precise design and control over the molecular topology of the polymeric network.

Water-dispersible fullerene aggregates as a targeted anticancer prodrug with both chemo- and photodynamic therapeutic actions

Prodrug therapy is one strategy to deliver anticancer drugs in a less reactive manner to reduce nonspecific cytotoxicity. A new multifunctional anticancer prodrug system based on water-dispersible fullerene (C60) aggregates is introduced; this prodrug system demonstrates active targeting, pH-responsive chemotherapy, and photodynamic therapeutic (PDT) properties. Incorporating (via a cleavable bond) an anticancer drug, which is doxorubicin (DOX) in this study, and a targeting ligand (folic acid) onto fullerene while maintaining an overall size of approximately 135 nm produces a more specific anticancer prodrug. This prodrug can enter folate receptor (FR)-positive cancer cells and kill the cells via intracellular release of the active drug form. Moreover, the fullerene aggregate carrier exhibits PDT action; the cytotoxicity of the system towards FR-positive cancer cells is increased in response to light irradiation. As the DOX drug molecules are conjugated onto fullerene, the DOX fluorescence is significantly quenched by the strong electron-accepting capability of fullerene. The fluorescence restores upon release from fullerene, so this fluorescence quenching-restoring feature can be used to track intracellular DOX release. The combined effect of chemotherapy and PDT increases the therapeutic efficacy of the DOX-fullerene aggregate prodrug. This study provides useful insights into designing and improving the applicability of fullerene for other targeted cancer prodrug systems.

Progress Toward Robust Polymer Hydrogels

In this review we highlight new developments in tough hydrogel materials in terms of their enhanced mechanical performance and their corresponding toughening mechanisms. These mechanically robust hydrogels have been developed over the past 10 years with many now showing mechanical properties comparable with those of natural tissues. By first reviewing the brittleness of conventional synthetic hydrogels, we introduce each new class of tough hydrogel: homogeneous gels, slip-link gels, double-network gels, nanocomposite gels and gels formed using poly-functional crosslinkers. In each case we provide a description of the fracture process that may be occurring. With the exception of double network gels where the enhanced toughness is quite well understood, these descriptions remain to be confirmed. We also introduce material property charts for conventional and tough synthetic hydrogels to illustrate the wide range of mechanical and swelling properties exhibited by these materials and to highlight links between these properties and the network topology. Finally, we provide some suggestions for further work particularly with regard to some unanswered questions and possible avenues for further enhancement of gel toughness.