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Dupont J, Leal BC, Lozano P, Monteiro AL, Migowski P, Scholten JD. Ionic Liquids in Metal, Photo-, Electro-, and (Bio) Catalysis. Chem Rev 2024; 124:5227-5420. [PMID: 38661578 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
Ionic liquids (ILs) have unique physicochemical properties that make them advantageous for catalysis, such as low vapor pressure, non-flammability, high thermal and chemical stabilities, and the ability to enhance the activity and stability of (bio)catalysts. ILs can improve the efficiency, selectivity, and sustainability of bio(transformations) by acting as activators of enzymes, selectively dissolving substrates and products, and reducing toxicity. They can also be recycled and reused multiple times without losing their effectiveness. ILs based on imidazolium cation are preferred for structural organization aspects, with a semiorganized layer surrounding the catalyst. ILs act as a container, providing a confined space that allows modulation of electronic and geometric effects, miscibility of reactants and products, and residence time of species. ILs can stabilize ionic and radical species and control the catalytic activity of dynamic processes. Supported IL phase (SILP) derivatives and polymeric ILs (PILs) are good options for molecular engineering of greener catalytic processes. The major factors governing metal, photo-, electro-, and biocatalysts in ILs are discussed in detail based on the vast literature available over the past two and a half decades. Catalytic reactions, ranging from hydrogenation and cross-coupling to oxidations, promoted by homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts in both single and multiphase conditions, are extensively reviewed and discussed considering the knowledge accumulated until now.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jairton Dupont
- Institute of Chemistry - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Avenida Bento Gonçalves, 9500, Porto Alegre 91501-970 RS, Brasil
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular B e Inmunología, Facultad de Química, Universidad de Murcia, P.O. Box 4021, E-30100 Murcia, Spain
| | - Bárbara C Leal
- Institute of Chemistry - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Avenida Bento Gonçalves, 9500, Porto Alegre 91501-970 RS, Brasil
| | - Pedro Lozano
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular B e Inmunología, Facultad de Química, Universidad de Murcia, P.O. Box 4021, E-30100 Murcia, Spain
| | - Adriano L Monteiro
- Institute of Chemistry - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Avenida Bento Gonçalves, 9500, Porto Alegre 91501-970 RS, Brasil
| | - Pedro Migowski
- Institute of Chemistry - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Avenida Bento Gonçalves, 9500, Porto Alegre 91501-970 RS, Brasil
| | - Jackson D Scholten
- Institute of Chemistry - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - UFRGS, Avenida Bento Gonçalves, 9500, Porto Alegre 91501-970 RS, Brasil
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2
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Badgujar KC, Badgujar JK, Bhanage BM. Improved biocatalytic activity of steapsin lipase in supercritical carbon dioxide medium for the synthesis of benzyl butyrate: A commercially important flavour compound. J Biotechnol 2024; 384:55-62. [PMID: 38401645 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2024.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2023] [Revised: 02/19/2024] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 02/26/2024]
Abstract
Enzymatic synthesis of flavours, fragrances and food additives compounds have great demand and market value. Benzyl butyrate is commercially important flavour and food additive compound having global use around 100 metric tons/year and widely used in various industrial sectors. However, industrial synthesis of food additive benzyl butyrate is carried out by conventional chemical process which demands for the green biobased sustainable synthetic process. The present work reports steapsin catalyzed synthesis of benzyl butyrate for the first time in supercritical carbon dioxide (Sc-CO2) reaction medium. All reaction variables are optimized in details to obtain competent conversion of 99% in Sc-CO2 reaction medium. The developed steapsin catalyzed synthesis in Sc-CO2 medium offered almost four-fold higher conversion to benzyl butyrate than organic (conventional) solvent. The steapsin biocatalyst was effectually recycled up to five reaction cycles in Sc-CO2 medium. Moreover, the developed steapsin catalyzed protocol in Sc-CO2 medium was extended to synthesize different ten industrially significant flavour fragrance compounds that offers 99% conversion and three to five-folds higher conversion than organic medium. Thus, the present steapsin catalyzed protocol offered improved synthesis of various commercially significant flavour compounds in Sc-CO2. medium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirtikumar C Badgujar
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Chemical Technology, Matunga, Mumbai 400019, India
| | - Jagruti K Badgujar
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Chemical Technology, Matunga, Mumbai 400019, India
| | - Bhalchandra M Bhanage
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Chemical Technology, Matunga, Mumbai 400019, India.
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Monteiro RRC, Berenguer-Murcia Á, Rocha-Martin J, Vieira RS, Fernandez-Lafuente R. Biocatalytic production of biolubricants: Strategies, problems and future trends. Biotechnol Adv 2023; 68:108215. [PMID: 37473819 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2023.108215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2023] [Revised: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/15/2023] [Indexed: 07/22/2023]
Abstract
The increasing worries by the inadequate use of energy and the preservation of nature are promoting an increasing interest in the production of biolubricants. After discussing the necessity of producing biolubricants, this review focuses on the production of these interesting molecules through the use of lipases, discussing the different possibilities (esterification of free fatty acids, hydroesterification or transesterification of oils and fats, transesterification of biodiesel with more adequate alcohols, estolides production, modification of fatty acids). The utilization of discarded substrates has special interest due to the double positive ecological impact (e.g., oil distillated, overused oils). Pros and cons of all these possibilities, together with general considerations to optimize the different processes will be outlined. Some possibilities to overcome some of the problems detected in the production of these interesting compounds will be also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodolpho R C Monteiro
- Departamento de Engenharia Química, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Campus do Pici, 60455760 Fortaleza, Brazil
| | - Ángel Berenguer-Murcia
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica e Instituto Universitario de Materiales, Universidad de Alicante, 03080 Alicante, Spain
| | - Javier Rocha-Martin
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Biología, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Rodrigo S Vieira
- Departamento de Engenharia Química, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Campus do Pici, 60455760 Fortaleza, Brazil.
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Ionic Liquids for Development of Heterogeneous Catalysts Based on Nanomaterials for Biocatalysis. NANOMATERIALS 2021; 11:nano11082030. [PMID: 34443861 PMCID: PMC8399483 DOI: 10.3390/nano11082030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2021] [Revised: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The development of effective methods of enzyme stabilization is key for the evolution of biocatalytic processes. An interesting approach combines the stabilization process of proteins in ionic liquids and the immobilization of the active phase on the solid support. As a result, stable, active and heterogeneous biocatalysts are obtained. There are several benefits associated with heterogeneous processes, as easy separation of the biocatalyst from the reaction mixture and the possibility of recycling. Accordingly, this work focused on the supported ionic liquid phases as the efficient enzyme stabilization carriers, and their application in both continuous flow and batch biocatalytic processes.
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Zhao H. What do we learn from enzyme behaviors in organic solvents? - Structural functionalization of ionic liquids for enzyme activation and stabilization. Biotechnol Adv 2020; 45:107638. [PMID: 33002582 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2020.107638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Revised: 09/05/2020] [Accepted: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Enzyme activity in nonaqueous media (e.g. conventional organic solvents) is typically lower than in water by several orders of magnitude. There is a rising interest of developing new nonaqueous solvent systems that are more "water-like" and more biocompatible. Therefore, we need to learn from the current state of nonaqueous biocatalysis to overcome its bottleneck and provide guidance for new solvent design. This review firstly focuses on the discussion of how organic solvent properties (such as polarity and hydrophobicity) influence the enzyme activity and stability, and how these properties impact the enzyme's conformation and dynamics. While hydrophobic organic solvents usually lead to the maintenance of enzyme activity, solvents carrying functional groups like hydroxys and ethers (including crown ethers and cyclodextrins) can lead to enzyme activation. Ionic liquids (ILs) are designable solvents that can conveniently incorporate these functional groups. Therefore, we systematically survey these ether- and/or hydroxy-functionalized ILs, and find most of them are highly compatible with enzymes leading to high activity and stability. In particular, ILs carrying both ether and tert-alcohol groups are among the most enzyme-activating solvents. Future direction is to learn from enzyme behaviors in both water and nonaqueous media to design biocompatible "water-like" solvents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Zhao
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO 80639, United States.
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Vázquez L, Bañares C, Torres CF, Reglero G. Green Technologies for the Production of Modified Lipids. Annu Rev Food Sci Technol 2020; 11:319-337. [PMID: 31910657 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-food-032519-051701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, the use of green solvents in enzyme catalysis of lipophilic compounds is achieving increasing interest from different perspectives. Conducting reactions under supercritical fluids, ionic liquids, deep eutectic solvents, and other green solvents affords opportunities to overcome problems associated with the lack of solubility of lipids in conventional solvents and the poor miscibility of substrates. Research on the biocatalytic production of modified lipids in the framework of green chemistry is conducted to improve the efficiency of obtaining the desired products as well as the selectivity, stability, and activity of the enzymatic systems. This overview describes the fundamentals and characteristics of several types of green solvents, the main variables involved in enzymatic processes, and examples and applications in the field of lipid modification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Vázquez
- Department of Production and Characterization of Novel Foods, Institute of Food Science Research, CIAL (CSIC-UAM), 28049 Madrid, Spain; e-mail:
| | - Celia Bañares
- Department of Production and Characterization of Novel Foods, Institute of Food Science Research, CIAL (CSIC-UAM), 28049 Madrid, Spain; e-mail:
| | - Carlos F Torres
- Department of Production and Characterization of Novel Foods, Institute of Food Science Research, CIAL (CSIC-UAM), 28049 Madrid, Spain; e-mail:
| | - Guillermo Reglero
- Department of Production and Characterization of Novel Foods, Institute of Food Science Research, CIAL (CSIC-UAM), 28049 Madrid, Spain; e-mail: .,Department of Production and Development of Foods for Health, IMDEA-Food Institute, CEI (UAM-CSIC), 28049 Madrid, Spain
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Kumar A, Bhakuni K, Venkatesu P. Strategic planning of proteins in ionic liquids: future solvents for the enhanced stability of proteins against multiple stresses. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2019; 21:23269-23282. [PMID: 31621726 DOI: 10.1039/c9cp04772g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Ionic liquids (ILs) present a vast number of solvents capable of replacing toxic organic solvents in chemical, biotechnology and biomedical applications. ILs are inexpensive and environmentally friendly as the materials can be recycled conveniently. Chemists use a variety of cation and anion combinations to produce an IL that fits the requirements of the sustainable future through the pursuit of greener chemical processes. As such, the development of various types of ILs has been recognized as the emergence of environmentally friendly solvents to attain enhanced protein stability in vitro. The literature survey reveals that there exist a large number of scholarly articles as well as elegant reviews on protein stability in ILs. Biomolecules have adapted to antagonistic environmental stresses that normally denature proteins, and the mechanism of adaptation that protects the cellular components against denaturation involves the intracellular concentration of co-solvents. In this regard, recent experimental results distinctly demonstrated that ILs are stabilizing proteins against denaturing stresses, and their presence in the cells does not alter protein functional activities. However, a review focusing particularly on the refolding and counteracting effects of the ILs against denatured proteins by multiple stresses is still missing. This perspective unveils the studies that have been conducted to improve protein stabilities with ILs as well as the refolding and counteracting abilities of these ILs against the denatured proteins under the influence of multiple stresses. We believe that ILs can provide significant environmental and economic advantages for biochemical processes in the near future. Essentially, numerous investigations are required to allow us to further explore the stabilizing properties of ILs over proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Awanish Kumar
- Department of Chemistry, University of Delhi, Delhi-110 007, India.
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Meyer L, Gummesson A, Kragl U, Langermann J. Development of Ionic Liquid‐Water‐Based Thermomorphic Solvent (TMS)‐Systems for Biocatalytic Reactions. Biotechnol J 2019; 14:e1900215. [DOI: 10.1002/biot.201900215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Lars‐Erik Meyer
- Biocatalytic Synthesis Group, Institute of ChemistryUniversity of Rostock Albert‐Einstein‐Str. 3A 18059 Rostock Germany
| | - Anja Gummesson
- Biocatalytic Synthesis Group, Institute of ChemistryUniversity of Rostock Albert‐Einstein‐Str. 3A 18059 Rostock Germany
| | - Udo Kragl
- Department of Chemistry, Industrial and Applied ChemistryUniversity of Rostock Albert‐Einstein‐Str. 3A 18059 Rostock Germany
- Department Life, Light and MatterUniversity of Rostock 18051 Rostock Germany
| | - Jan Langermann
- Biocatalytic Synthesis Group, Institute of ChemistryUniversity of Rostock Albert‐Einstein‐Str. 3A 18059 Rostock Germany
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Celik S, Albayrak AT, Akyuz S, E. Ozel A. Molecular modelling and vibrational investigations of ammonium-based ionic liquid (CLTOAB). J Biomol Struct Dyn 2018; 37:2515-2526. [DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2018.1495578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Sefa Celik
- Electrical-Electronics Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty, Istanbul University - Cerrahpasa, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Ali Tugrul Albayrak
- Chemical Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty, Istanbul University - Cerrahpasa, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Sevim Akyuz
- Physics Department, Science and Letters Faculty, Istanbul Kultur University, Atakoy Campus, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Aysen E. Ozel
- Physics Department, Science Faculty, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey
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10
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Sun S, Hou X, Zhou W. Effect of ionic liquids on enzymatic preparation of lipophilic feruloylated structured lipids using distearin as feruloylated acceptor and kinetic analysis. J Mol Liq 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2018.03.077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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11
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Supercritical CO2 technology applied to the production of flavor ester compounds through lipase-catalyzed reaction: A review. J CO2 UTIL 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcou.2017.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Ghorbanizamani F, Timur S. Ionic Liquids from Biocompatibility and Electrochemical Aspects toward Applying in Biosensing Devices. Anal Chem 2017; 90:640-648. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.7b03596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Faezeh Ghorbanizamani
- Ege University, Faculty of Science, Biochemistry Department, Bornova, Izmir, Turkey, 35100
| | - Suna Timur
- Ege University, Faculty of Science, Biochemistry Department, Bornova, Izmir, Turkey, 35100
- Ege University, Central Research Testing and Analysis Laboratory Research and Application Center, Bornova, Izmir, Turkey, 35100
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Kołodziejska R, Studzińska R, Pawluk H. Lipase-catalyzed enantioselective transesterification of prochiral 1-((1,3-dihydroxypropan-2-yloxy)methyl)-5,6,7,8-tetrahydroquinazoline-2,4(1H,3H)-dione in ionic liquids. Chirality 2017; 30:206-214. [PMID: 29139569 DOI: 10.1002/chir.22787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2017] [Revised: 10/05/2017] [Accepted: 10/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The application of ionic liquids as solvents for transesterification of prochiral pirymidine acyclonucleoside using lipase (EC 3.1.1.3) Amano PS from Burkholderia cepacia (BCL) is reported. The effect of using medium reaction, acyl group donor, and temperature on the activity and enantioselectivity of BCL was studied. From the investigated ionic solvents, the hydrophobic ionic liquid [BMIM]PF6 ] was the preferred medium for enzymatic reactions. However, the best result was obtained in the mixture [BMIM][PF6 ]:TBME (1:1 v/v) at 50°C. Enzyme activity and selectivity in [BMIM][PF6 ]:TBME (1:1 v/v) was slightly higher in than in conventional organic solvents (for example, TBME), and in this condition, good activity and enantioselectivity were associated with unique properties of ionic liquid such as hydrophobicity and high polarity. Independently of solvents, monester of (R)-configuration was obtained in excess. Under optimal conditions, desymmetrization of the prochiral compound using different acyl donors was performed. If vinyl butyrate was used as the acylating agent, BCL completely selectively acylated enantiotopic hydroxyl groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renata Kołodziejska
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Bydgoszcz, Poland
| | - Renata Studzińska
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Bydgoszcz, Poland
| | - Hanna Pawluk
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Bydgoszcz, Poland
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14
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Kumar A, Bisht M, Venkatesu P. Biocompatibility of ionic liquids towards protein stability: A comprehensive overview on the current understanding and their implications. Int J Biol Macromol 2017; 96:611-651. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2016] [Revised: 12/02/2016] [Accepted: 12/04/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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16
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17
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Liu R, Zhang P, Zhang S, Yan T, Xin J, Zhang X. Ionic liquids and supercritical carbon dioxide: green and alternative reaction media for chemical processes. REV CHEM ENG 2016. [DOI: 10.1515/revce-2015-0078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
AbstractIonic liquids (ILs) and supercritical CO
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Primožič M, Kavčič S, Knez Ž, Leitgeb M. Enzyme-catalyzed esterification of d , l -lactic acid in different SCF/IL media. J Supercrit Fluids 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.supflu.2015.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Govinda V, Venkatesu P, Bahadur I. Molecular interactions between ammonium-based ionic liquids and molecular solvents: current progress and challenges. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2016; 18:8278-326. [DOI: 10.1039/c6cp00199h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
In this perspective, we describe how the thermodynamic parameters can be effectively used to gain valuable insights into molecular interactions between ammonium-based ILs and molecular solvents, which would be most useful in various industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Varadhi Govinda
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Delhi
- Delhi – 110 007
- India
| | | | - Indra Bahadur
- Department of Chemistry and Material Science Innovation & Modelling (MaSIM) Research Focus Area
- Faculty of Agriculture
- Science and Technology
- North-West University (Mafikeng Campus)
- Mmabatho 2735
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20
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Tuning of hydrophilic ionic liquids concentration: A way to prevent enzyme instability. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molcatb.2015.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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21
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Potdar MK, Kelso GF, Schwarz L, Zhang C, Hearn MTW. Recent Developments in Chemical Synthesis with Biocatalysts in Ionic Liquids. Molecules 2015; 20:16788-816. [PMID: 26389873 PMCID: PMC6331997 DOI: 10.3390/molecules200916788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2015] [Revised: 08/24/2015] [Accepted: 09/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the past decade, a variety of ionic liquids have emerged as greener solvents for use in the chemical manufacturing industries. Their unique properties have attracted the interest of chemists worldwide to employ them as replacement for conventional solvents in a diverse range of chemical transformations including biotransformations. Biocatalysts are often regarded as green catalysts compared to conventional chemical catalysts in organic synthesis owing to their properties of low toxicity, biodegradability, excellent selectivity and good catalytic performance under mild reaction conditions. Similarly, a selected number of specific ionic liquids can be considered as greener solvents superior to organic solvents owing to their negligible vapor pressure, low flammability, low toxicity and ability to dissolve a wide range of organic and biological substances, including proteins. A combination of biocatalysts and ionic liquids thus appears to be a logical and promising opportunity for industrial use as an alternative to conventional organic chemistry processes employing organic solvents. This article provides an overview of recent developments in this field with special emphasis on the application of more sustainable enzyme-catalyzed reactions and separation processes employing ionic liquids, driven by advances in fundamental knowledge, process optimization and industrial deployment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahesh K Potdar
- Centre for Green Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia.
| | - Geoffrey F Kelso
- Centre for Green Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia.
| | - Lachlan Schwarz
- Centre for Green Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia.
| | - Chunfang Zhang
- Centre for Green Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia.
| | - Milton T W Hearn
- Centre for Green Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria 3800, Australia.
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Sandig B, Michalek L, Vlahovic S, Antonovici M, Hauer B, Buchmeiser MR. A Monolithic Hybrid Cellulose-2.5-Acetate/Polymer Bioreactor for Biocatalysis under Continuous Liquid-Liquid Conditions Using a Supported Ionic Liquid Phase. Chemistry 2015; 21:15835-42. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201501618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Sun S, Hu B, Song F, Bi Y. Ionic liquids improve the selective synthesis of hydrophilic glyceryl ferulates by the enzymatic transesterification of ethyl ferulate with monostearin: Comparison with organic solvents. EUR J LIPID SCI TECH 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/ejlt.201400335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shangde Sun
- Lipid Technology and Engineering; School of Food Science and Engineering; Henan University of Technology; Zhengzhou Henan Province P. R. China
| | - Bingxue Hu
- Lipid Technology and Engineering; School of Food Science and Engineering; Henan University of Technology; Zhengzhou Henan Province P. R. China
| | - Fanfan Song
- Lipid Technology and Engineering; School of Food Science and Engineering; Henan University of Technology; Zhengzhou Henan Province P. R. China
| | - Yanlan Bi
- Lipid Technology and Engineering; School of Food Science and Engineering; Henan University of Technology; Zhengzhou Henan Province P. R. China
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Hernández Fernández FJ, Pérez de los Ríos A, Quesada-Medina J, Sánchez-Segado S. Ionic Liquids as Extractor Agents and Reaction Media in Ester Synthesis. CHEMBIOENG REVIEWS 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/cben.201400019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Lozano P, Bernal JM, Nieto S, Gomez C, Garcia-Verdugo E, Luis SV. Active biopolymers in green non-conventional media: a sustainable tool for developing clean chemical processes. Chem Commun (Camb) 2015; 51:17361-74. [DOI: 10.1039/c5cc07600e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
By understanding structure–function relationships of active biopolymers (e.g. enzymes and nucleic acids) in green non-conventional media, sustainable chemical processes may be developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Lozano
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular “B” e Inmunología
- Facultad de Química
- Campus de Excelencia Internacional Mare Nostrum
- Universidad de Murcia
- Murcia
| | - Juana M. Bernal
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular “B” e Inmunología
- Facultad de Química
- Campus de Excelencia Internacional Mare Nostrum
- Universidad de Murcia
- Murcia
| | - Susana Nieto
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular “B” e Inmunología
- Facultad de Química
- Campus de Excelencia Internacional Mare Nostrum
- Universidad de Murcia
- Murcia
| | - Celia Gomez
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular “B” e Inmunología
- Facultad de Química
- Campus de Excelencia Internacional Mare Nostrum
- Universidad de Murcia
- Murcia
| | | | - Santiago V. Luis
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica y Orgánica
- Universidad Jaume I
- Castellón
- Spain
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Jha I, Venkatesu P. Endeavour to simplify the frustrated concept of protein-ammonium family ionic liquid interactions. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2015; 17:20466-84. [DOI: 10.1039/c5cp01735a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Schematic representation of protein stabilization/destabilization in the presence of ionic liquids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Indrani Jha
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Delhi
- Delhi – 110007
- India
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27
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Jha I, Attri P, Venkatesu P. Unexpected effects of the alteration of structure and stability of myoglobin and hemoglobin in ammonium-based ionic liquids. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2014; 16:5514-26. [DOI: 10.1039/c3cp54398f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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29
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Prechter A, Heinrich MR. Enzymatic Kinetic Resolution and Racemization of 2-(Tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl)ethanols. European J Org Chem 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.201300661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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30
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De Diego T, Manjón A, Iborra JL. Selective synthesis of panthenyl esters by a kinetically controlled enzymatic process. BIOCATAL BIOTRANSFOR 2013. [DOI: 10.3109/10242422.2013.814644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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31
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How enzymes can remain active and stable in a compressed gas? New insights into the conformational stability of Candida antarctica lipase B in near-critical propane. J Supercrit Fluids 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.supflu.2012.08.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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32
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Enzyme is stabilized by a protection layer of ionic liquids in supercritical CO2: Insights from molecular dynamic simulation. J Supercrit Fluids 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.supflu.2012.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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33
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Tang S, Baker GA, Zhao H. Ether- and alcohol-functionalized task-specific ionic liquids: attractive properties and applications. Chem Soc Rev 2012; 41:4030-66. [PMID: 22456483 PMCID: PMC3341508 DOI: 10.1039/c2cs15362a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 338] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, the designer nature of ionic liquids (ILs) has driven their exploration and exploitation in countless fields among the physical and chemical sciences. A fair measure of the tremendous attention placed on these fluids has been attributed to their inherent designer nature. And yet, there are relatively few examples of reviews that emphasize this vital aspect in an exhaustive or meaningful way. In this critical review, we systematically survey the physicochemical properties of the collective library of ether- and alcohol-functionalized ILs, highlighting the impact of ionic structure on features such as viscosity, phase behavior/transitions, density, thermostability, electrochemical properties, and polarity (e.g. hydrophilicity, hydrogen bonding capability). In the latter portions of this review, we emphasize the attractive applications of these functionalized ILs across a range of disciplines, including their use as electrolytes or functional fluids for electrochemistry, extractions, biphasic systems, gas separations, carbon capture, carbohydrate dissolution (particularly, the (ligno)celluloses), polymer chemistry, antimicrobial and antielectrostatic agents, organic synthesis, biomolecular stabilization and activation, and nanoscience. Finally, this review discusses anion-functionalized ILs, including sulfur- and oxygen-functionalized analogs, as well as choline-based deep eutectic solvents (DESs), an emerging class of fluids which can be sensibly categorized as semi-molecular cousins to the IL. Finally, the toxicity and biodegradability of ether- and alcohol-functionalized ILs are discussed and cautiously evaluated in light of recent reports. By carefully summarizing literature examples on the properties and applications of oxy-functional designer ILs up till now, it is our intent that this review offers a barometer for gauging future advances in the field as well as a trigger to spur further contemplation of these seemingly inexhaustible and--relative to their potential--virtually untouched fluids. It is abundantly clear that these remarkable fluidic materials are here to stay, just as certain design rules are slowly beginning to emerge. However, in fairness, serendipity also still plays an undeniable role, highlighting the need for both expanded in silico studies and a beacon to attract bright, young researchers to the field (406 references).
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaokun Tang
- Key Laboratory for Green Chemical Technology of Ministry of Education, School of Chemical Engineering & Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Gary A. Baker
- Department of Chemistry, University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Hua Zhao
- Chemistry Program, Savannah State University, Savannah, GA 31404, USA
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Lozano P, García-Verdugo E, Bernal JM, Izquierdo DF, Burguete MI, Sánchez-Gómez G, Luis SV. Immobilised lipase on structured supports containing covalently attached ionic liquids for the continuous synthesis of biodiesel in scCO2. CHEMSUSCHEM 2012; 5:790-798. [PMID: 22383391 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.201100692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Different nanostructured supports, based on 1-decyl-2-methyimidazolium cations covalently attached to a polystyrene divinylbenzene porous matrix, were used as carriers to immobilise Candida antarctica lipase B. The suitability of these immobilised lipase derivatives for the synthesis of biodiesel (methyl oleate) by the methanolysis of triolein has been tested in both tert-butanol and supercritical (sc)CO(2) (18 MPa, 45 °C) as reaction media. The use of modified supports with low ionic-liquid loading covalently attached to the main polymeric backbone chains provide structured materials that led to the best biodiesel yields (up to 95 %) and operational stability (85 % biodiesel yield after 45 cycles of 8-4 h) in scCO(2) (45 °C, 18 MPa). The presence of tert-butanol as an inert cosolvent in the scCO(2) phase at the same concentration as triolein was key to avoid poisoning the biocatalyst through the blockage of its active sites by the polar byproduct (glycerol) produced in the biodiesel synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Lozano
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular B e Inmunología, Facultad de Química, Universidad de Murcia, Murcia, Spain.
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Machida H, Takesue M, Smith RL. Green chemical processes with supercritical fluids: Properties, materials, separations and energy. J Supercrit Fluids 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.supflu.2011.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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36
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Burguete MI, García-Verdugo E, Luis SV. Efficient and selective chemical transformations under flow conditions: The combination of supported catalysts and supercritical fluids. Beilstein J Org Chem 2011; 7:1347-59. [PMID: 22043246 PMCID: PMC3201049 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.7.159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2011] [Accepted: 09/12/2011] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper reviews the current trends in the combined use of supported catalytic systems, either on solid supports or in liquid phases and supercritical fluids (scFs), to develop selective and enantioselective chemical transformations under continuous and semi-continuous flow conditions. The results presented have been selected to highlight how the combined use of those two elements can contribute to: (i) Significant improvements in productivity as a result of the enhanced diffusion of substrates and reagents through the interfaces favored by the scF phase; (ii) the long term stability of the catalytic systems, which also contributes to the improvement of the final productivity, as the use of an appropriate immobilization strategy facilitates catalyst isolation and reuse; (iii) the development of highly efficient selective or, when applicable, enantioselective chemical transformations. Although the examples reported in the literature and considered in this review are currently confined to a limited number of fields, a significant development in this area can be envisaged for the near future due to the clear advantages of these systems over the conventional ones.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Isabel Burguete
- Department of Inorganic and Organic Chemistry, University Jaume I, Avda. Sos Baynat s/n, 12071-Castellón, Spain
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37
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Exceptional efficiency of palladium nanoparticle catalyzed Heck cross-coupling in binary task specific ionic liquids. CR CHIM 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.crci.2010.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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38
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Kobayashi T. Lipase-catalyzed syntheses of sugar esters in non-aqueous media. Biotechnol Lett 2011; 33:1911-9. [DOI: 10.1007/s10529-011-0663-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2011] [Accepted: 05/23/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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39
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De Diego T, Manjón A, Lozano P, Iborra JL. A recyclable enzymatic biodiesel production process in ionic liquids. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2011; 102:6336-6339. [PMID: 21392972 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2011.02.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2010] [Revised: 02/16/2011] [Accepted: 02/16/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Immobilized Candida antarctica lipase B suspended in ionic liquids containing long alkyl-chain cations showed excellent synthetic activity and operational stability for biodiesel production. The interest of this process lies in the possibility of recycling the biocatalyst and the easy separation of the biodiesel from the reaction mixture. The ionic liquids used, 1-hexadecyl-3-methylimidazolium triflimide ([C(16)MIM][NTf(2)]) and 1-octadecyl-3-methylimidazolium triflimide ([C(18)MIM][NTf(2)]), produced homogeneous systems at the start of the reaction and, at the end of the same, formed a three-phase system, allowing the selective extraction of the products using straightforward separation techniques, and the recycling of both the ionic liquid and the enzyme. These are very important advantages which may be found useful in environmentally friendly production conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa De Diego
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology B and Immunology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Murcia, P.O. Box 4021, E-30100 Murcia, Spain
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40
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Franken B, Eggert T, Jaeger KE, Pohl M. Mechanism of acetaldehyde-induced deactivation of microbial lipases. BMC BIOCHEMISTRY 2011; 12:10. [PMID: 21342514 PMCID: PMC3049140 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2091-12-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2010] [Accepted: 02/22/2011] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Background Microbial lipases represent the most important class of biocatalysts used for a wealth of applications in organic synthesis. An often applied reaction is the lipase-catalyzed transesterification of vinyl esters and alcohols resulting in the formation of acetaldehyde which is known to deactivate microbial lipases, presumably by structural changes caused by initial Schiff-base formation at solvent accessible lysine residues. Previous studies showed that several lipases were sensitive toward acetaldehyde deactivation whereas others were insensitive; however, a general explanation of the acetaldehyde-induced inactivation mechanism is missing. Results Based on five microbial lipases from Candida rugosa, Rhizopus oryzae, Pseudomonas fluorescens and Bacillus subtilis we demonstrate that the protonation state of lysine ε-amino groups is decisive for their sensitivity toward acetaldehyde. Analysis of the diverse modification products of Bacillus subtilis lipases in the presence of acetaldehyde revealed several stable products such as α,β-unsaturated polyenals, which result from base and/or amino acid catalyzed aldol condensation of acetaldehyde. Our studies indicate that these products induce the formation of stable Michael-adducts at solvent-accessible amino acids and thus lead to enzyme deactivation. Further, our results indicate Schiff-base formation with acetaldehyde to be involved in crosslinking of lipase molecules. Conclusions Differences in stability observed with various commercially available microbial lipases most probably result from different purification procedures carried out by the respective manufacturers. We observed that the pH of the buffer used prior to lyophilization of the enzyme sample is of utmost importance. The mechanism of acetaldehyde-induced deactivation of microbial lipases involves the generation of α,β-unsaturated polyenals from acetaldehyde which subsequently form stable Michael-adducts with the enzymes. Lyophilization of the enzymes from buffer at pH 6.0 can provide an easy and effective way to stabilize lipases toward inactivation by acetaldehyde.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Franken
- Institute of Molecular Enzyme Technology, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, D-52426 Jülich, Germany
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Klähn M, Lim GS, Wu P. How ion properties determine the stability of a lipase enzyme in ionic liquids: A molecular dynamics study. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2011; 13:18647-60. [DOI: 10.1039/c1cp22056j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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42
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Jutz F, Andanson JM, Baiker A. Ionic liquids and dense carbon dioxide: a beneficial biphasic system for catalysis. Chem Rev 2010; 111:322-53. [PMID: 21053968 DOI: 10.1021/cr100194q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 173] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Fabian Jutz
- Institute for Chemical and Bioengineering, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, Hönggerberg, HCI, Zurich, Switzerland
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Moniruzzaman M, Kamiya N, Goto M. Activation and stabilization of enzymes in ionic liquids. Org Biomol Chem 2010; 8:2887-99. [PMID: 20445940 DOI: 10.1039/b926130c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 187] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
As environmentally benign "green" solvents, room temperature ionic liquids (ILs) have been used as solvents or (co)solvents in biocatalytic reactions and processes for a decade. The technological utility of enzymes can be enhanced greatly by their use in ionic liquids (ILs) rather than in conventional organic solvents or in their natural aqueous reaction media. In fact, the combination of green properties and unique tailor-made physicochemical properties make ILs excellent non-aqueous solvents for enzymatic catalysis with numerous advantages over other solvents, including high conversion rates, high selectivity, better enzyme stability, as well as better recoverability and recyclability. However, in many cases, particularly in hydrophilic ILs, enzymes show relative instability and/or lower activity compared with conventional solvents. To improve the enzyme activity as well as stability in ILs, various attempts have been made by modifying the form of the enzymes. Examples are enzyme immobilization onto support materials via adsorption or multipoint attachment, lyophilization in the presence of stabilizing agents, chemical modification with stabilizing agents, formation of cross-linked enzyme aggregates, pretreatment with polar organic solvents or enzymes combined with suitable surfactants to form microemulsions. The use of these enzyme preparations in ILs can dramatically increase the solvent tolerance, enhance activity as well as stability, and improve enantioselectivity. This perspective highlights a number of pronounced strategies being used successfully for activation and stabilization of enzymes in non-aqueous ILs media. This review is not intended to be comprehensive, but rather to present a general overview of the potential approaches to activate enzymes for diverse enzymatic processes and biotransformations in ILs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Moniruzzaman
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Kyushu University, 744 Moto-oka, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
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Moniruzzaman M, Nakashima K, Kamiya N, Goto M. Recent advances of enzymatic reactions in ionic liquids. Biochem Eng J 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bej.2009.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 376] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Enantioselective transesterification of racemic phenyl ethanol and its derivatives in organic solvent and ionic liquid using Pseudomonas aeruginosa lipase. Process Biochem 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2009.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Hernández-Fernández FJ, RÃos APDL, Tomás-Alonso F, Gómez D, VÃllora G. Stability of hydrolase enzymes in ionic liquids. CAN J CHEM ENG 2009. [DOI: 10.1002/cjce.20227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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49
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Preparation of the glucose sensor based on three-dimensional ordered macroporous gold film and room temperature ionic liquid. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/s11426-009-0249-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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