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Hamilton KA, Ciol Harrison J, Mitchell J, Weir M, Verhougstraete M, Haas CN, Nejadhashemi AP, Libarkin J, Gim Aw T, Bibby K, Bivins A, Brown J, Dean K, Dunbar G, Eisenberg JNS, Emelko M, Gerrity D, Gurian PL, Hartnett E, Jahne M, Jones RM, Julian TR, Li H, Li Y, Gibson JM, Medema G, Meschke JS, Mraz A, Murphy H, Oryang D, Owusu-Ansah EDGJ, Pasek E, Pradhan AK, Razzolini MTP, Ryan MO, Schoen M, Smeets PWMH, Soller J, Solo-Gabriele H, Williams C, Wilson AM, Zimmer-Faust A, Alja'fari J, Rose JB. Research gaps and priorities for quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA). RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2024. [PMID: 38772724 DOI: 10.1111/risa.14318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2023] [Revised: 03/12/2024] [Accepted: 04/28/2024] [Indexed: 05/23/2024]
Abstract
The coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic highlighted the need for more rapid and routine application of modeling approaches such as quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) for protecting public health. QMRA is a transdisciplinary science dedicated to understanding, predicting, and mitigating infectious disease risks. To better equip QMRA researchers to inform policy and public health management, an Advances in Research for QMRA workshop was held to synthesize a path forward for QMRA research. We summarize insights from 41 QMRA researchers and experts to clarify the role of QMRA in risk analysis by (1) identifying key research needs, (2) highlighting emerging applications of QMRA; and (3) describing data needs and key scientific efforts to improve the science of QMRA. Key identified research priorities included using molecular tools in QMRA, advancing dose-response methodology, addressing needed exposure assessments, harmonizing environmental monitoring for QMRA, unifying a divide between disease transmission and QMRA models, calibrating and/or validating QMRA models, modeling co-exposures and mixtures, and standardizing practices for incorporating variability and uncertainty throughout the source-to-outcome continuum. Cross-cutting needs identified were to: develop a community of research and practice, integrate QMRA with other scientific approaches, increase QMRA translation and impacts, build communication strategies, and encourage sustainable funding mechanisms. Ultimately, a vision for advancing the science of QMRA is outlined for informing national to global health assessments, controls, and policies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerry A Hamilton
- The Biodesign Institute Center for Environmental Health Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
- School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
| | - Joanna Ciol Harrison
- The Biodesign Institute Center for Environmental Health Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
- School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
| | - Jade Mitchell
- Department of Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - Mark Weir
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences and Sustainability Institute, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | - Marc Verhougstraete
- Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
| | - Charles N Haas
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - A Pouyan Nejadhashemi
- Department of Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - Julie Libarkin
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - Tiong Gim Aw
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
| | - Kyle Bibby
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana, USA
| | - Aaron Bivins
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA
| | - Joe Brown
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Kara Dean
- Department of Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - Gwyneth Dunbar
- Department of Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - Joseph N S Eisenberg
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Monica Emelko
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
| | - Daniel Gerrity
- Applied Research and Development Center, Southern Nevada Water Authority, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA
| | - Patrick L Gurian
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | | | - Michael Jahne
- Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Rachael M Jones
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Timothy R Julian
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Duebendorf, Switzerland
| | - Hongwan Li
- Department of Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - Yanbin Li
- Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, The University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, USA
| | - Jacqueline MacDonald Gibson
- Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Gertjan Medema
- KWR Water Research Institute, Nieuwegein, The Netherlands
- TU Delft, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - J Scott Meschke
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Alexis Mraz
- Department of Public Health, School of Nursing, Health and Exercise Science, The College of New Jersey, Ewing, New Jersey, USA
| | - Heather Murphy
- Ontario Veterinary College Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - David Oryang
- Food and Drug Administration (FDA), US Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN), College Park, United States
| | | | - Emily Pasek
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - Abani K Pradhan
- Department of Nutrition and Food Science & Center for Food Safety and Security Systems, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, USA
| | | | - Michael O Ryan
- Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Mary Schoen
- Soller Environmental, Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Patrick W M H Smeets
- KWR Water Research Institute, Nieuwegein, The Netherlands
- TU Delft, Delft, The Netherlands
| | | | - Helena Solo-Gabriele
- Department of Chemical, Environmental, and Materials Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Miami, Coral Gables, Florida, USA
| | - Clinton Williams
- US Arid Land Agricultural Research Center, Maricopa, Arizona, USA
| | - Amanda M Wilson
- Community, Environment & Policy Department, Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
| | | | - Jumana Alja'fari
- National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA
| | - Joan B Rose
- Department of Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
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Reyneke B, Hamilton KA, Fernández-Ibáñez P, Polo-López MI, McGuigan KG, Khan S, Khan W. EMA-amplicon-based sequencing informs risk assessment analysis of water treatment systems. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 743:140717. [PMID: 32679496 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2020] [Revised: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Illumina amplicon-based sequencing was coupled with ethidium monoazide bromide (EMA) pre-treatment to monitor the total viable bacterial community and subsequently identify and prioritise the target organisms for the health risk assessment of the untreated rainwater and rainwater treated using large-volume batch solar reactor prototypes installed in an informal settlement and rural farming community. Taxonomic assignments indicated that Legionella and Pseudomonas were the most frequently detected genera containing opportunistic bacterial pathogens in the untreated and treated rainwater at both sites. Additionally, Mycobacterium, Clostridium sensu stricto and Escherichia/Shigella displayed high (≥80%) detection frequencies in the untreated and/or treated rainwater samples at one or both sites. Numerous exposure scenarios (e.g. drinking, cleaning) were subsequently investigated and the health risk of using untreated and solar reactor treated rainwater in developing countries was quantified based on the presence of L. pneumophila, P. aeruginosa and E. coli. The solar reactor prototypes were able to reduce the health risk associated with E. coli and P. aeruginosa to below the 1 × 10-4 annual benchmark limit for all the non-potable uses of rainwater within the target communities (exception of showering for E. coli). However, the risk associated with intentional drinking of untreated or treated rainwater exceeded the benchmark limit (E. coli and P. aeruginosa). Additionally, while the solar reactor treatment reduced the risk associated with garden hosing and showering based on the presence of L. pneumophila, the risk estimates for both activities still exceeded the annual benchmark limit. The large-volume batch solar reactor prototypes were thus able to reduce the risk posed by the target bacteria for non-potable activities rainwater is commonly used for in water scarce regions of sub-Saharan Africa. This study highlights the need to assess water treatment systems in field trials using QMRA.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Reyneke
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Stellenbosch 7602, South Africa
| | - K A Hamilton
- School for Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281, United States; The Biodesign Institute Center for Environmental Health Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85281, United States
| | - P Fernández-Ibáñez
- Plataforma Solar de Almeria-CIEMAT, P.O. Box 22, Tabernas, Almería, Spain; Nanotechnology and Integrated BioEngineering Centre, School of Engineering, University of Ulster, Newtownabbey, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
| | - M I Polo-López
- Plataforma Solar de Almeria-CIEMAT, P.O. Box 22, Tabernas, Almería, Spain
| | - K G McGuigan
- Department of Physiology and Medical Physics, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - S Khan
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Johannesburg, PO Box 17011, Doornfontein 2028, South Africa
| | - W Khan
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Stellenbosch 7602, South Africa.
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Kozak S, Petterson S, McAlister T, Jennison I, Bagraith S, Roiko A. Utility of QMRA to compare health risks associated with alternative urban sewer overflow management strategies. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2020; 262:110309. [PMID: 32250792 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Revised: 01/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Wet weather sewer overflows pose potential short-term public health risks. With increasing populations, aging infrastructure and climate change, utilities are challenged with managing sewerage infrastructure to provide optimum outcomes. This study compared how modelled public health risk profiles could change under alternative sewer overflow management strategies during 12 and 24-month rainfall-runoff events. Specifically, existing conditions were compared with both a 'business-as-usual' (BAU) sewer upgrade and a more holistic 'effects-based planning' (EBP) approach based on pumped wet weather sewage overflows directed to a local receiving waterway. Options were compared based on their efficacy to reduce manhole overflows, recreational waterway guideline exceedances and downstream recreational waterway health risks estimated through a screening-level Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA). Results indicated that the two management strategies would be equally effective in reducing the frequency, duration and volume of manhole sewer overflows, eliminating them in the 12-month scenarios and reducing them from >5000 m3 for the 24-month baseline scenario, to 23 and 35 m3 for BAU and EBP, respectively. Baseline, BAU and EBP scenarios produced similar hours of enterococci guideline exceedances, ranging from 1 to 4 h difference. The QMRA produced similar health risk profiles for downstream recreational waterway users for all design events, suggesting that sewer overflows are not the primary driver of public health risks during and immediately following high rainfall events. As such, QMRA provided evidence that an EBP strategy may be used to manage wet weather sewer overflows in lieu of an expensive BAU upgrade, without exacerbating the public health of downstream waterway users. Further investigation of the broader environmental health impacts of implementing this type of innovative approach is warranted. Nonetheless, this work highlights the value of integrating QMRA with other modelling approaches to guide and inform sewer overflow management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonya Kozak
- School of Medicine, Griffith University, Parklands Drive, Gold Coast, Australia; Cities Research Institute, Griffith University, Parklands Drive, Gold Coast, Australia.
| | - Susan Petterson
- School of Medicine, Griffith University, Parklands Drive, Gold Coast, Australia; Water & Health Pty Ltd, P.O. 648, Salamander Bay, 2317, Australia.
| | - Tony McAlister
- School of Medicine, Griffith University, Parklands Drive, Gold Coast, Australia; Water Technology, Level 3, 43 Peel Street, South Brisbane, QLD, Australia.
| | - Ian Jennison
- Queensland Urban Utilities, 2/15 Green Square Close, Brisbane, Australia.
| | - Sam Bagraith
- Queensland Urban Utilities, 2/15 Green Square Close, Brisbane, Australia.
| | - Anne Roiko
- School of Medicine, Griffith University, Parklands Drive, Gold Coast, Australia; Cities Research Institute, Griffith University, Parklands Drive, Gold Coast, Australia.
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Romeiko XX. Assessing Health Impacts of Conventional Centralized and Emerging Resource Recovery-Oriented Decentralized Water Systems. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17030973. [PMID: 32033234 PMCID: PMC7038023 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17030973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2019] [Revised: 01/28/2020] [Accepted: 02/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Energy shortage and climate change call for sustainable water and wastewater infrastructure capable of simultaneously recovering energy, mitigating greenhouse gas emissions, and protecting public health. Although energy and greenhouse gas emissions of water and wastewater infrastructure are extensively studied, the human health impacts of innovative infrastructure designed under the principles of decentralization and resource recovery are not fully understood. In order to fill this knowledge gap, this study assesses and compares the health impacts of three representative systems by integrating life cycle and microbial risk assessment approaches. This study found that the decentralized system options, such as on-site septic tank and composting or urine diverting toilets, presented much lower life cycle cancer and noncancer impacts than the centralized system. The microbial risks of decentralized systems options were also lower than those of the centralized system. Moreover, life cycle cancer and noncancer impacts contributed to approximately 95% of total health impacts, while microbial risks were associated with the remaining 5%. Additionally, the variability and sensitivity assessment indicated that reducing energy use of wastewater treatment and water distribution is effective in mitigating total health damages of the centralized system, while reducing energy use of water treatment is effective in mitigating total health damages of the decentralized systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaobo Xue Romeiko
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University at Albany, State University of New York, Albany, NY 12222, USA
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Jahne MA, Brinkman NE, Keely SP, Zimmerman BD, Wheaton EA, Garland JL. Droplet digital PCR quantification of norovirus and adenovirus in decentralized wastewater and graywater collections: Implications for onsite reuse. WATER RESEARCH 2020; 169:115213. [PMID: 31671297 PMCID: PMC7017454 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.115213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2019] [Revised: 10/08/2019] [Accepted: 10/17/2019] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Risk-based treatment of onsite wastewaters for decentralized reuse requires information on the occurrence and density of pathogens in source waters, which differ from municipal wastewater due to scaling and dilution effects in addition to variable source contributions. In this first quantitative report of viral enteric pathogens in onsite-collected graywater and wastewater, untreated graywater (n = 50 samples) and combined wastewater (i.e., including blackwater; n = 28) from three decentralized collection systems were analyzed for two norovirus genogroups (GI/GII) and human adenoviruses using droplet digital polymerase chain reaction (ddPCR). Compared to traditional quantitative PCR (qPCR), which had insufficient sensitivity to quantify viruses in graywater, ddPCR allowed quantification of norovirus GII and adenovirus in 4% and 14% of graywater samples, respectively (none quantifiable for norovirus GI). Norovirus GII was routinely quantifiable in combined wastewater by either PCR method (96% of samples), with well-correlated results between the analyses (R2 = 0.96) indicating a density range of 5.2-7.9 log10 genome copies/L. These concentrations are greater than typically reported in centralized municipal wastewater, yet agree well with an epidemiology-based model previously used to develop pathogen log-reduction targets (LRTs) for decentralized non-potable water systems. Results emphasize the unique quality of onsite wastewaters, supporting the previous LRTs and further quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) of decentralized water reuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael A Jahne
- Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr., Cincinnati, OH, 45268, USA.
| | - Nichole E Brinkman
- Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr., Cincinnati, OH, 45268, USA
| | - Scott P Keely
- Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr., Cincinnati, OH, 45268, USA
| | - Brian D Zimmerman
- Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr., Cincinnati, OH, 45268, USA
| | - Emily A Wheaton
- Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr., Cincinnati, OH, 45268, USA
| | - Jay L Garland
- Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr., Cincinnati, OH, 45268, USA
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Ahmed W, Hamilton K, Toze S, Cook S, Page D. A review on microbial contaminants in stormwater runoff and outfalls: Potential health risks and mitigation strategies. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 692:1304-1321. [PMID: 31539962 PMCID: PMC7126443 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2019] [Revised: 06/27/2019] [Accepted: 07/04/2019] [Indexed: 04/14/2023]
Abstract
Demands on global water supplies are increasing in response to the need to provide more food, water, and energy for a rapidly growing population. These water stressors are exacerbated by climate change, as well as the growth and urbanisation of industry and commerce. Consequently, urban water authorities around the globe are exploring alternative water sources to meet ever-increasing demands. These alternative sources are primarily treated sewage, stormwater, and groundwater. Stormwater including roof-harvested rainwater has been considered as an alternative water source for both potable and non-potable uses. One of the most significant issues concerning alternative water reuse is the public health risk associated with chemical and microbial contaminants. Several studies to date have quantified fecal indicators and pathogens in stormwater. Microbial source tracking (MST) approaches have also been used to determine the sources of fecal contamination in stormwater and receiving waters. This review paper summarizes occurrence and concentrations of fecal indicators, pathogens, and MST marker genes in urban stormwater. A section of the review highlights the removal of fecal indicators and pathogens through water sensitive urban design (WSUD) or Best Management Practices (BMPs). We also discuss approaches for assessing and mitigating health risks associated with stormwater, including a summary of existing quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) models for potable and non-potable reuse of stormwater. Finally, the most critical research gaps are identified for formulating risk management strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Warish Ahmed
- CSIRO Land and Water, Ecosciences Precinct, 41 Boggo Road, Qld 4102, Australia.
| | - Kerry Hamilton
- Drexel University, 3141 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Simon Toze
- CSIRO Land and Water, Ecosciences Precinct, 41 Boggo Road, Qld 4102, Australia
| | - Stephen Cook
- CSIRO Land and Water, Research way, Clayton South, VIC 3169, Australia
| | - Declan Page
- CSIRO Land and Water, Waite Laboratories, Waite Rd., Urrbrae, SA 5064, Australia
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Xu X, Liu Y, Liu S, Li J, Guo G, Smith K. Real-time detection of potable-reclaimed water pipe cross-connection events by conventional water quality sensors using machine learning methods. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2019; 238:201-209. [PMID: 30851559 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.02.110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2018] [Revised: 02/05/2019] [Accepted: 02/23/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Risk of cross-connection is becoming higher due to greater construction of potable-reclaimed water dual distribution systems. Cross-connection events can result in serious health concerns and reduce public confidence in reclaimed water. Thus, reliable, cost-effective and real-time online detection methods for early warning are required. The current study carried out pilot-scale experiments to simulate potable-reclaimed water pipe cross-connection events for different mixing ratios (from 30% to 1%) using machine learning methods based on multiple conventional water quality parameters. The parameters included residual chlorine, pH, turbidity, temperature, conductivity, oxidation-reduction potential and chemical oxygen demand. The results showed that correlated variation occurred among water quality parameters at the time of the cross-connection event. A single parameter-based method can be effective at high mixing ratios, but not at low mixing ratios. The direct supporting vector machine (SVM)-based method managed to overcome this drawback, but coped poorly with abnormal readings of water parameter sensors. In that respect, a Pearson correlation coefficient (PCC)-SVM-based method was developed. It provided not only high detection performance under normal conditions, but also remained reliable when abnormal readings occurred. The detection accuracy and true positive rate of this method was still over 88%, and the false positive rate was below 12%, given a sudden variation of an individual water quality parameter. The receiver operating characteristic curves further confirmed the promising practical applicability of this PCC-SVM-based method for early detection of cross-connection events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiyan Xu
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
| | - Ying Liu
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
| | - Shuming Liu
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China.
| | - Junyu Li
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
| | - Guancheng Guo
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
| | - Kate Smith
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, 100084, Beijing, China
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A Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of Crop Systems Irrigated with the Groundwater and Reclaimed Water in Northern China. SUSTAINABILITY 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/su11102743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Using reclaimed water from treated wastewater as an irrigation source is gaining popularity in arid and semi-arid areas. However, life cycle assessment studies, utilizing experimental data to analyze the environmental and health impacts of crops irrigated with reclaimed water, are lacking. This study presents the first comparative life cycle assessment of corn, soybean and wheat systems irrigated with groundwater and reclaimed water in Northern China. While the life cycle foreground inventory was based on a combination of experimental and modeling datasets, the life cycle background inventory was compiled with commercially available data packages augmented with Chinese electricity mix data. The life cycle impact analyses were based on the characterization factors from state-of-art life cycle impact assessment models. The analyses indicated that the life cycle global warming impacts of the crop systems ranged from 0.37 to 0.64 kg CO2-eq/kg grain, with reclaimed water irrigated soybean and ground water irrigated wheat exhibiting, respectively, the lowest and highest global warming impacts. Irrigation, farming equipment operation, on-field emissions and fertilizer production ranked as top contributors to the life cycle impacts for corn, soybean, and wheat. The comparative analyses of irrigation sources suggested that significant environmental tradeoffs existed. Replacing groundwater with reclaimed water as the irrigation source significantly decreased life cycle global warming, acidification, ozone depletion, smog formation, and respiratory impacts of corn, soybean and wheat systems. However, replacing groundwater with reclaimed water increased the life cycle noncancer impacts of those systems. Coordinating policies within the water–food–health nexus is required, in order to minimize the environmental tradeoffs, while maximizing the benefits of irrigation with reclaimed water.
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Ahmed W, O'Dea C, Masters N, Kuballa A, Marinoni O, Katouli M. Marker genes of fecal indicator bacteria and potential pathogens in animal feces in subtropical catchments. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 656:1427-1435. [PMID: 30625670 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2018] [Revised: 11/06/2018] [Accepted: 11/29/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
We investigated the abundance of marker genes of two fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) and eight potential pathogens in fecal samples of humans (n = 14) and 10 domestic and native wild animals (n = 134). For each target animal, between 10 and 14 individual fecal samples were collected (n = 148 individual fecal samples in total). The abundance of FIB and potential pathogens within each sample was determined using quantitative PCR (qPCR) assays. All animals tested were positive for Escherichia coli (EC) and the concentrations ranged from 6.13 (flying fox) to 8.87 (chicken) log10 GC/g of feces. These values for Enterococcus spp. (ENT) were 5.25 log10 GC/g for flying fox and 8.12 log10 GC/g of feces for chicken. Moderate correlations were observed between EC with P. aeruginosa, EC O157 and Cryptosporidium parvum, whereas weak correlations were observed between EC and Salmonella spp. and Giardia lamblia, Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) and Campylobacter spp. The prevalence of MAC and P. aeruginosa were low in dog (14.3% each) and moderate (57.2%, MAC; 42.9% P. aeruginosa) in Eastern grey kangaroo fecal samples. Cryptosporidium parvum was detected in one cattle and one human fecal sample, while G. lamblia was detected in one dog, one flying fox, and one pig fecal samples. Among the eight potential pathogens tested, five pathogens were detected in chicken and dog fecal samples. The remaining animal species contained up to three potential pathogens in their feces. The data generated in this study may aid in the calculation of pathogen loads in the environment, and hence to assess the risks from human and animal fecal contamination of source waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Warish Ahmed
- CSIRO Land and Water, Ecosciences Precinct, 41 Boggo Road, QLD 4102, Australia.
| | - Christian O'Dea
- GeneCology Research Centre, Faculty of Science, Health, Education and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, QLD 4558, Australia
| | - Nicole Masters
- GeneCology Research Centre, Faculty of Science, Health, Education and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, QLD 4558, Australia
| | - Anna Kuballa
- GeneCology Research Centre, Faculty of Science, Health, Education and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, QLD 4558, Australia
| | - Oswald Marinoni
- CSIRO Land and Water, Ecosciences Precinct, 41 Boggo Road, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Mohammad Katouli
- GeneCology Research Centre, Faculty of Science, Health, Education and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, QLD 4558, Australia
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Arden S, Ma X(C, Brown M. Holistic Analysis of Urban Water Systems in the Greater Cincinnati Region: (2) Resource Use Profiles by Emergy Accounting Approach. WATER RESEARCH X 2019; 2:100012. [PMID: 30882068 PMCID: PMC6415548 DOI: 10.1016/j.wroa.2018.100012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
With increasing populations, mounting environmental pressures and aging infrastructure, urban water and wastewater utilities have to make investment decisions limited by both economic and environmental constraints. The challenges facing urban water systems can no longer be sustainably solved by traditional siloed water management approaches. A central premise of contemporary urban water management paradigms is that in order for urban water systems to be more sustainable and economical, an improvement in resource use efficiency at system level must be achieved. This study provides a quantification of the total resource use of a typical urban water system exemplified in Greater Cincinnati region from raw water extraction for drinking water to wastewater treatment and discharge, providing a better understanding of resource expenditure distributions within the system and a necessary benchmark to which future system improvements can be compared. The emergy methodology was used so that the total environmental work required to produce disparate system inputs could be expressed using a common unit. The results were compared to the concurring life cycle assessment (LCA) and life cycle costing (LCC) results of the same system. Emergy results highlight drinking water treatment and drinking water distribution as two resource-intensive stages, with energy for pumping and chemicals for conditioning representing the greatest inputs to the former and energy for pumping and metals for piping representing the greatest inputs to the latter. For wastewater collection and treatment stages, aeration and sludge handling were identified as the highest emergy unit processes, mostly due to energy use. Comparison with LCA results substantiate the environmental concerns associated with energy use in the drinking water treatment and distribution stages but indicate that environmental burdens associated with infrastructure are more dependent upon upstream resource use rather than downstream environmental impact. Results from emergy, LCA and LCC point towards aeration and sludge handling as two unit processes on the wastewater side that are particularly costly and environmentally impactful. Results in total are used to suggest alternative strategies that can alleviate identified environmental burdens and economic costs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam Arden
- UF Center for Environmental Policy, 102 Phelps Laboratory, University of Florida, P.O. Box 116530, Gainesville, FL, 32611-6350, USA
| | - Xin (Cissy) Ma
- US EPA ORD, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, 26 West Martin Luther King Drive, Cincinnati, OH, 45268, USA
- Corresponding author.
| | - Mark Brown
- UF Center for Environmental Policy, 102 Phelps Laboratory, University of Florida, P.O. Box 116530, Gainesville, FL, 32611-6350, USA
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Shoults DC, Ashbolt NJ. Total staphylococci as performance surrogate for greywater treatment. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2018; 25:32894-32900. [PMID: 28462431 PMCID: PMC6245020 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-017-9050-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2016] [Accepted: 04/18/2017] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Faecal indicator bacteria (FIB) are commonly used as water quality indicators; implying faecal contamination and therefore the potential presence of pathogenic enteric bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. Hence in wastewater treatment, the most commonly used treatment process measures (surrogates) are total coliforms, faecal coliforms, Escherichia coli (E. coli), and enterococci. However, greywater potentially contains skin pathogens unrelated to faecal load, and E. coli and other FIB may grow within greywater unrelated to pathogens. Overall, FIB occurs at fluctuating and relatively low concentrations compared to other endogenous greywater bacteria affecting their ability as surrogates for pathogen reduction. Therefore, unlike municipal sewage, FIB provides a very limited and unreliable log-reduction surrogate measure for on-site greywater treatment systems. Based on our recent metagenomic study of laundry greywater, skin-associated bacteria such as Staphylococcus, Corynebacterium, and Propionibacterium spp. dominate and may result in more consistent treatment surrogates than traditional FIB. Here, we investigated various Staphylococcus spp. as potential surrogates to reliably assay over 4-log10 reduction by the final-stage UV disinfection step commonly used for on-site greywater reuse, and compare them to various FIB/phage surrogates. A collimated UV beam was used to determine the efficacy of UV inactivation (255, 265 and 285 nm) against E. coli, Enterococcus faecalis, E. faecium, E. casseliflavus, Staphylococcus aureus, and S. epidermidis. Staphylococcus spp. was estimated by combining the bi-linear dose-response curves for S. aureus and S. epidermidis and was shown to be less resistant to UV irradiation than the other surrogates examined. Hence, a relative inactivation credit is suggested; whereas, the doses required to achieve a 4 and 5-log10 reduction of Staphylococcus spp. (13.0 and 20.9 mJ cm-2, respectively) were used to determine the relative inactivation of the other microorganisms investigated. The doses required to achieve a 4 and 5-log10 reduction of Staphylococcus spp. resulted in a log10 reduction of 1.4 and 4.1 for E. coli, 0.8 and 2.8 for E. faecalis, 0.8 and 3.6 for E. casseliflavus and 0.8 and 1.2 for MS2 coliphage, respectively. Given the concentration difference of Staphylococcus spp. and FIB (3 to 5-log10 higher), we propose the use of Staphylococcus spp. as a novel endogenous performance surrogate to demonstrate greywater treatment performance given its relatively high and consistent concentration and therefore ability to demonstrate over 5-log10 reductions.
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Affiliation(s)
- David C Shoults
- School of Public Health, University of Alberta, Room 3-57, South Academic Building, Edmonton, AB, T6E 2G7, Canada.
| | - Nicholas J Ashbolt
- School of Public Health, University of Alberta, Room 3-57, South Academic Building, Edmonton, AB, T6E 2G7, Canada
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Casal-Campos A, Sadr SMK, Fu G, Butler D. Reliable, Resilient and Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems: An Analysis of Robustness under Deep Uncertainty. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2018; 52:9008-9021. [PMID: 30011191 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b01193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Reliability, resilience and sustainability are key goals of any urban drainage system. However, only a few studies have recently focused on measuring, operationalizing and comparing such concepts in a world of deep uncertainty. In this study, these key concepts are defined and quantified for a number of gray, green and hybrid strategies, aimed at improving the capacity issues of an existing integrated urban wastewater system. These interventions are investigated by means of a regret-based approach, which evaluates the robustness (that is the ability to perform well under deep uncertainty conditions) of each strategy in terms of the three qualities through integration of multiple objectives (i.e., sewer flooding, river water quality, combined sewer overflows, river flooding, greenhouse gas emissions, cost and acceptability) across four different future scenarios. The results indicate that strategies found to be robust in terms of sustainability were typically also robust for resilience and reliability across future scenarios. However, strategies found to be robust in terms of their resilience and, in particular, for reliability did not guarantee robustness for sustainability. Conventional gray infrastructure strategies were found to lack robustness in terms of sustainability due to their unbalanced economic, environmental and social performance. Such limitations were overcome, however, by implementing hybrid solutions that combine green retrofits and gray rehabilitation solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arturo Casal-Campos
- Centre for Water Systems, College of Engineering, Mathematics and Physical Sciences , University of Exeter , North Park Road, Harrison Building , Exeter EX4 4QF , United Kingdom
| | - Seyed M K Sadr
- Centre for Water Systems, College of Engineering, Mathematics and Physical Sciences , University of Exeter , North Park Road, Harrison Building , Exeter EX4 4QF , United Kingdom
| | - Guangtao Fu
- Centre for Water Systems, College of Engineering, Mathematics and Physical Sciences , University of Exeter , North Park Road, Harrison Building , Exeter EX4 4QF , United Kingdom
| | - David Butler
- Centre for Water Systems, College of Engineering, Mathematics and Physical Sciences , University of Exeter , North Park Road, Harrison Building , Exeter EX4 4QF , United Kingdom
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13
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Arden S, Ma X. Constructed wetlands for greywater recycle and reuse: A review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 630:587-599. [PMID: 29494968 PMCID: PMC7362998 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.02.218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2018] [Revised: 02/17/2018] [Accepted: 02/18/2018] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Concern over dwindling water supplies for urban areas as well as environmental degradation from existing urban water systems has motivated research into more resilient and sustainable water supply strategies. Greywater reuse has been suggested as a way to diversify local water supply portfolios while at the same time lessening the burden on existing environments and infrastructure. Constructed wetlands have been proposed as an economically and energetically efficient unit process to treat greywater for reuse purposes, though their ability to consistently meet applicable water quality standards, microbiological in particular, is questionable. We therefore review the existing case study literature to summarize the treatment performance of greywater wetlands in the context of chemical, physical and microbiological water quality standards. Based on a cross-section of different types of wetlands, including surface flow, subsurface flow, vertical and recirculating vertical flow, across a range of operating conditions, we show that although microbiological standards cannot reliably be met, given either sufficient retention time or active recirculation, chemical and physical standards can. We then review existing case study literature for typical water supply disinfection unit processes including chlorination, ozonation and ultraviolet radiation treating either raw or treated greywater specifically. An evaluation of effluent water quality from published wetland case studies and the expected performance from disinfection processes shows that under appropriate conditions these two unit processes together can likely produce effluent of sufficient quality to meet all nonpotable reuse standards. Specifically, we suggest that recycling vertical flow wetlands combined with ultraviolet radiation disinfection and chlorine residual is the best combination to reliably meet the standards.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Arden
- University of Florida, 100 Phelps Lab, Gainesville, FL 32611, United States
| | - X Ma
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr., Cincinnati, OH 45268, United States.
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14
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Quantitative Microbial Risk Analysis for Various Bacterial Exposure Scenarios Involving Greywater Reuse for Irrigation. WATER 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/w10040413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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15
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Murphy HM, Meng Z, Henry R, Deletic A, McCarthy DT. Current Stormwater Harvesting Guidelines Are Inadequate for Mitigating Risk from Campylobacter During Nonpotable Reuse Activities. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:12498-12507. [PMID: 29035523 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b03089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Campylobacter is a pathogen frequently detected in urban stormwater worldwide. It is one of the leading causes of enteric disease in many developed countries and is the leading cause of enteric disease in Australia. Prior to harvesting stormwater, adequate treatment is necessary to mitigate risks derived from such harmful pathogens. The goal of this research was to estimate the health risks associated with the exposure to Campylobacter when harvesting urban stormwater for toilet flushing and irrigation activities, and the role treatment options play in limiting risks. Campylobacter data collected from several urban stormwater systems in Victoria, Australia, were the inputs of a Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment model. The model included seven treatment scenarios, spanning wetlands, biofilters, and more traditional treatment trains including those recommended by the Australian Guidelines for Water Recycling. According to our modeling and acceptable risk thresholds, only two treatment scenarios could supply water of sufficient quality for toilet flushing and irrigation end-uses: (1) using stormwater biofilters coupled with UV-treatment and (2) a more conventional coagulation, filtration, UV, and chlorination treatment plant. Importantly, our modeling results suggest that current guidelines in place for stormwater reuse are not adequate for protecting against exposure to Campylobacter. However, more research is required to better define whether the Campylobacter detectable in stormwater are pathogenic to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather M Murphy
- Division of Environmental Health, College of Public Health, Temple University , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19122, United States
| | - Ze Meng
- Environmental and Public Health Microbiology Laboratory (EPHM Lab), Department of Civil Engineering, Monash Infrastructure Institute, Monash University , Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Rebekah Henry
- Environmental and Public Health Microbiology Laboratory (EPHM Lab), Department of Civil Engineering, Monash Infrastructure Institute, Monash University , Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Ana Deletic
- Environmental and Public Health Microbiology Laboratory (EPHM Lab), Department of Civil Engineering, Monash Infrastructure Institute, Monash University , Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - David T McCarthy
- Environmental and Public Health Microbiology Laboratory (EPHM Lab), Department of Civil Engineering, Monash Infrastructure Institute, Monash University , Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
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16
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Hamilton KA, Ahmed W, Toze S, Haas CN. Human health risks for Legionella and Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) from potable and non-potable uses of roof-harvested rainwater. WATER RESEARCH 2017; 119:288-303. [PMID: 28500949 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2016] [Revised: 03/30/2017] [Accepted: 04/02/2017] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
A quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) of opportunistic pathogens Legionella pneumophila (LP) and Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) was undertaken for various uses of roof-harvested rainwater (RHRW) reported in Queensland, Australia to identify appropriate usages and guide risk management practices. Risks from inhalation of aerosols due to showering, swimming in pools topped up with RHRW, use of a garden hose, car washing, and toilet flushing with RHRW were considered for LP while both ingestion (drinking, produce consumption, and accidental ingestion from various activities) and inhalation risks were considered for MAC. The drinking water route of exposure presented the greatest risks due to cervical lymphadenitis and disseminated infection health endpoints for children and immune-compromised populations, respectively. It is therefore not recommended that these populations consume untreated rainwater. LP risks were up to 6 orders of magnitude higher than MAC risks for the inhalation route of exposure for all scenarios. Both inhalation and ingestion QMRA simulations support that while drinking, showering, and garden hosing with RHRW may present the highest risks, car washing and clothes washing could constitute appropriate uses of RHRW for all populations, and toilet flushing and consumption of lettuce irrigation with RHRW would be appropriate for non- immune-compromised populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerry A Hamilton
- CSIRO Land and Water, Ecosciences Precinct, 41 Boggo Road, Qld 4102, Australia; Drexel University, 3141 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
| | - Warish Ahmed
- CSIRO Land and Water, Ecosciences Precinct, 41 Boggo Road, Qld 4102, Australia
| | - Simon Toze
- CSIRO Land and Water, Ecosciences Precinct, 41 Boggo Road, Qld 4102, Australia
| | - Charles N Haas
- Drexel University, 3141 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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17
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Jahne MA, Schoen ME, Garland JL, Ashbolt NJ. Simulation of enteric pathogen concentrations in locally-collected greywater and wastewater for microbial risk assessments. MICROBIAL RISK ANALYSIS 2017; 5:44-52. [PMID: 30148198 PMCID: PMC6104838 DOI: 10.1016/j.mran.2016.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
As decentralized water reuse continues to gain popularity, risk-based treatment guidance is increasingly sought for the protection of public health. However, effort s to evaluate pathogen risks and log-reduction requirements have been hindered by an incomplete understanding of pathogen occurrence and densities in locally-collected wastewaters (i.e., from decentralized collection systems). Of particular interest is the potentially high enteric pathogen concentration in small systems with an active infected excreter, but generally lower frequency of pathogen occurrences in smaller systems compared to those with several hundred contributors. Such variability, coupled with low concentrations in many source streams (e.g., sink, shower/bath, and laundry waters), has limited direct measurement of pathogens. This study presents an approach to modeling pathogen concentrations in variously sized greywater and combined wastewater collection systems based on epidemiological pathogen incidence rates, user population size, and fecal loadings to various residential wastewater sources. Pathogen infections were modeled within various population sizes (5-, 100-, and 1,000-person) for seven reference pathogens (viruses: adenoviruses, Norovirus, and Rotavirus; bacteria: Campylobacter and Salmonella spp.; and protozoa: Cryptosporidium and Giardia spp.) on each day of 10,000 possible years, accounting for intermittent infection and overlap of infection periods within the population. Fecal contamination of fresh greywaters from bathroom sinks, showers/baths, and laundry, as well as combined greywater and local combined wastewater (i.e., including toilets), was modeled based on reported fecal indicators in the various sources. Simulated daily infections and models of fecal contamination were coupled with pathogen shedding characteristics to generate distributions of pathogen densities in the various waters. The predicted frequency of pathogen occurrences in local wastewaters was generally low due to low infection incidence within small cohort groups, but increased with collection scale (population size) and infection incidence rate (e.g., Norovirus). When pathogens did occur, a decrease in concentrations from 5- to 100- and from 100- to 1,000-person systems was observed; nonetheless, overall mean concentrations (i.e., including non-occurrences) remained the same due to the increased number of occurrences. This highlights value of the model for characterizing scaling effects over averaging methods, which overestimate the frequency of pathogen occurrence in small systems while underestimating concentration peaks that likely drive risk periods. Results of this work will inform development of risk-based pathogen reduction requirements for decentralized water reuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael A. Jahne
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr., Cincinnati OH 45268, United States
| | - Mary E. Schoen
- Soller Environmental, 3022 King St., Berkeley, CA 94703, United States
| | - Jay L. Garland
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 26 W. Martin Luther King Dr., Cincinnati OH 45268, United States
| | - Nicholas J. Ashbolt
- University of Alberta, Rm 3-57D South Academic Building, Edmonton, AB T6G 2G7, Canada
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18
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Schoen ME, Xue X, Wood A, Hawkins TR, Garland J, Ashbolt NJ. Cost, energy, global warming, eutrophication and local human health impacts of community water and sanitation service options. WATER RESEARCH 2017; 109:186-195. [PMID: 27888775 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.11.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2016] [Revised: 10/31/2016] [Accepted: 11/14/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
We compared water and sanitation system options for a coastal community across selected sustainability metrics, including environmental impact (i.e., life cycle eutrophication potential, energy consumption, and global warming potential), equivalent annual cost, and local human health impact. We computed normalized metric scores, which we used to discuss the options' strengths and weaknesses, and conducted sensitivity analysis of the scores to changes in variable and uncertain input parameters. The alternative systems, which combined centralized drinking water with sanitation services based on the concepts of energy and nutrient recovery as well as on-site water reuse, had reduced environmental and local human health impacts and costs than the conventional, centralized option. Of the selected sustainability metrics, the greatest advantages of the alternative community water systems (compared to the conventional system) were in terms of local human health impact and eutrophication potential, despite large, outstanding uncertainties. Of the alternative options, the systems with on-site water reuse and energy recovery technologies had the least local human health impact; however, the cost of these options was highly variable and the energy consumption was comparable to on-site alternatives without water reuse or energy recovery, due to on-site reuse treatment. Future work should aim to reduce the uncertainty in the energy recovery process and explore the health risks associated with less costly, on-site water treatment options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary E Schoen
- Soller Environmental, Inc., 3022 King St., Berkeley, CA 94703, USA.
| | - Xiaobo Xue
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University at Albany, State University of New York, 1 University Place, Rensselaer, NY 12144, USA.
| | - Alison Wood
- The University of Texas at Austin, Dept. of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, 301 E. Dean Keeton St. C8600, Austin, TX 78712-8600, USA.
| | - Troy R Hawkins
- Franklin Associates, A Division of Eastern Research Group, 110 Hartwell Avenue, Lexington, MA 02421, USA.
| | - Jay Garland
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 26 W. Martin Luther King Drive, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA.
| | - Nicholas J Ashbolt
- Rm. 3-57D South Academic Building, School of Public Health, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2G7, Canada.
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Van Abel N, Schoen ME, Kissel JC, Meschke JS. Comparison of Risk Predicted by Multiple Norovirus Dose-Response Models and Implications for Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment. RISK ANALYSIS : AN OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOCIETY FOR RISK ANALYSIS 2017; 37:245-264. [PMID: 27285380 DOI: 10.1111/risa.12616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2014] [Revised: 02/26/2016] [Accepted: 03/01/2016] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
The application of quantitative microbial risk assessments (QMRAs) to understand and mitigate risks associated with norovirus is increasingly common as there is a high frequency of outbreaks worldwide. A key component of QMRA is the dose-response analysis, which is the mathematical characterization of the association between dose and outcome. For Norovirus, multiple dose-response models are available that assume either a disaggregated or an aggregated intake dose. This work reviewed the dose-response models currently used in QMRA, and compared predicted risks from waterborne exposures (recreational and drinking) using all available dose-response models. The results found that the majority of published QMRAs of norovirus use the 1 F1 hypergeometric dose-response model with α = 0.04, β = 0.055. This dose-response model predicted relatively high risk estimates compared to other dose-response models for doses in the range of 1-1,000 genomic equivalent copies. The difference in predicted risk among dose-response models was largest for small doses, which has implications for drinking water QMRAs where the concentration of norovirus is low. Based on the review, a set of best practices was proposed to encourage the careful consideration and reporting of important assumptions in the selection and use of dose-response models in QMRA of norovirus. Finally, in the absence of one best norovirus dose-response model, multiple models should be used to provide a range of predicted outcomes for probability of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Van Abel
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Mary E Schoen
- Soller Environmental, Berkeley, Inc., Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - John C Kissel
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - J Scott Meschke
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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20
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Petterson SR, Ashbolt NJ. QMRA and water safety management: review of application in drinking water systems. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2016; 14:571-589. [PMID: 27441853 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2016.262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA), the assessment of microbial risks when model inputs and estimated health impacts are explicitly quantified, is a valuable tool to support water safety plans (WSP). In this paper, research studies undertaken on the application of QMRA in drinking water systems were reviewed, highlighting their relevance for WSP. The important elements for practical implementation include: the data requirements to achieve sufficient certainty to support decision-making; level of expertise necessary to undertake the required analysis; and the accessibility of tools to support wider implementation, hence these aspects were the focus of the review. Recommendations to support the continued and growing application of QMRA to support risk management in the water sector are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- S R Petterson
- Water & Health Pty Ltd, PO Box 648, Salamander Bay 2317, Australia E-mail:
| | - N J Ashbolt
- School of Public Health, University of Alberta, Alberta, Canada T6G 2G7
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21
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Comparing the Life Cycle Energy Consumption, Global Warming and Eutrophication Potentials of Several Water and Waste Service Options. WATER 2016. [DOI: 10.3390/w8040154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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22
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Technologic resilience assessment of coastal community water and wastewater service options. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.swaqe.2015.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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23
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Sustainable Water Systems for the City of Tomorrow—A Conceptual Framework. SUSTAINABILITY 2015. [DOI: 10.3390/su70912071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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24
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Kobayashi Y, Peters GM, Ashbolt NJ, Heimersson S, Svanström M, Khan SJ. Global and local health burden trade-off through the hybridisation of quantitative microbial risk assessment and life cycle assessment to aid water management. WATER RESEARCH 2015; 79:26-38. [PMID: 25965885 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2015.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2014] [Revised: 02/27/2015] [Accepted: 03/15/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Life cycle assessment (LCA) and quantitative risk assessment (QRA) are commonly used to evaluate potential human health impacts associated with proposed or existing infrastructure and products. Each approach has a distinct objective and, consequently, their conclusions may be inconsistent or contradictory. It is proposed that the integration of elements of QRA and LCA may provide a more holistic approach to health impact assessment. Here we examine the possibility of merging LCA assessed human health impacts with quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) for waterborne pathogen impacts, expressed with the common health metric, disability adjusted life years (DALYs). The example of a recent large-scale water recycling project in Sydney, Australia was used to identify and demonstrate the potential advantages and current limitations of this approach. A comparative analysis of two scenarios - with and without the development of this project - was undertaken for this purpose. LCA and QMRA were carried out independently for the two scenarios to compare human health impacts, as measured by DALYs lost per year. LCA results suggested that construction of the project would lead to an increased number of DALYs lost per year, while estimated disease burden resulting from microbial exposures indicated that it would result in the loss of fewer DALYs per year than the alternative scenario. By merging the results of the LCA and QMRA, we demonstrate the advantages in providing a more comprehensive assessment of human disease burden for the two scenarios, in particular, the importance of considering the results of both LCA and QRA in a comparative assessment of decision alternatives to avoid problem shifting. The application of DALYs as a common measure between the two approaches was found to be useful for this purpose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yumi Kobayashi
- School of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of New South Wales, 2052 NSW, Australia
| | - Greg M Peters
- School of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of New South Wales, 2052 NSW, Australia; Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Nicholas J Ashbolt
- School of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of New South Wales, 2052 NSW, Australia; School of Public Health, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2G7, Canada
| | - Sara Heimersson
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Magdalena Svanström
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Stuart J Khan
- School of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of New South Wales, 2052 NSW, Australia.
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25
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Ashbolt NJ. Environmental (Saprozoic) Pathogens of Engineered Water Systems: Understanding Their Ecology for Risk Assessment and Management. Pathogens 2015; 4:390-405. [PMID: 26102291 PMCID: PMC4493481 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens4020390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2015] [Revised: 06/15/2015] [Accepted: 06/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Major waterborne (enteric) pathogens are relatively well understood and treatment controls are effective when well managed. However, water-based, saprozoic pathogens that grow within engineered water systems (primarily within biofilms/sediments) cannot be controlled by water treatment alone prior to entry into water distribution and other engineered water systems. Growth within biofilms or as in the case of Legionella pneumophila, primarily within free-living protozoa feeding on biofilms, results from competitive advantage. Meaning, to understand how to manage water-based pathogen diseases (a sub-set of saprozoses) we need to understand the microbial ecology of biofilms; with key factors including biofilm bacterial diversity that influence amoebae hosts and members antagonistic to water-based pathogens, along with impacts from biofilm substratum, water temperature, flow conditions and disinfectant residual—all control variables. Major saprozoic pathogens covering viruses, bacteria, fungi and free-living protozoa are listed, yet today most of the recognized health burden from drinking waters is driven by legionellae, non-tuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) and, to a lesser extent, Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In developing best management practices for engineered water systems based on hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) or water safety plan (WSP) approaches, multi-factor control strategies, based on quantitative microbial risk assessments need to be developed, to reduce disease from largely opportunistic, water-based pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J Ashbolt
- School of Public Health, University of Alberta, Rm 3-57D South Academic Building, Edmonton, AB T6G 2G7, Canada.
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Wood A, Blackhurst M, Hawkins T, Xue X, Ashbolt N, Garland J. Cost-effectiveness of nitrogen mitigation by alternative household wastewater management technologies. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2015; 150:344-354. [PMID: 25575282 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2014.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2014] [Accepted: 10/10/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Household wastewater, especially from conventional septic systems, is a major contributor to nitrogen pollution. Alternative household wastewater management technologies provide similar sewerage management services but their life cycle costs and nitrogen flow implications remain uncertain. This paper addresses two key questions: (1) what are the total costs, nitrogen mitigation potential, and cost-effectiveness of a range of conventional and alternative municipal wastewater treatment technologies, and (2) what uncertainties influence these outcomes and how can we improve our understanding of these technologies? We estimate a household nitrogen mass balance for various household wastewater treatment systems and combine this mass balance with life cycle cost assessment to calculate the cost-effectiveness of nitrogen mitigation, which we define as nitrogen removed from the local watershed. We apply our methods to Falmouth, MA, where failing septic systems have caused heightened eutrophication in local receiving water bodies. We find that flushing and dry (composting) urine-diversion toilets paired with conventional septic systems for greywater management demonstrate the lowest life cycle cost and highest cost-effectiveness (dollars per kilogram of nitrogen removed from the watershed). Composting toilets are also attractive options in some cases, particularly best-case nitrogen mitigation. Innovative/advanced septic systems designed for high-level nitrogen removal are cost-competitive options for newly constructed homes, except at their most expensive. A centralized wastewater treatment plant is the most expensive and least cost-effective option in all cases. Using a greywater recycling system with any treatment technology increases the cost without adding any nitrogen removal benefits. Sensitivity analysis shows that these results are robust considering a range of cases and uncertainties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison Wood
- The University of Texas at Austin, Dept. of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, 301 E. Dean Keeton St. C8600, Austin, TX 78712-8600, United States.
| | - Michael Blackhurst
- The University of Texas at Austin, 301 E. Dean Keeton St. C2100, Austin, TX 78712-2100, United States
| | - Troy Hawkins
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, 26 W. Martin Luther King Drive, Cincinnati, OH, 45268, United States
| | - Xiaobo Xue
- ORISE Research Fellow, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, 26 W. Martin Luther King Drive, Cincinnati, OH 45268, United States
| | - Nicholas Ashbolt
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Exposure Research Laboratory, 26 W. Martin Luther King Drive, Cincinnati, OH, 45268, United States
| | - Jay Garland
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Microbiological and Chemical Exposure Assessment Research Division, 26 W. Martin Luther King Drive, Cincinnati, OH, 45268, United States
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Harder R, Schoen ME, Peters GM. Including pathogen risk in life cycle assessment of wastewater management. Implications for selecting the functional unit. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2015; 49:14-15. [PMID: 25531773 DOI: 10.1021/es505828n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Robin Harder
- Chemical Environmental Science, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology , SE-41296 Gothenburg, Sweden
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