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Shende VV, Bauman KD, Moore BS. The shikimate pathway: gateway to metabolic diversity. Nat Prod Rep 2024; 41:604-648. [PMID: 38170905 PMCID: PMC11043010 DOI: 10.1039/d3np00037k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Covering: 1997 to 2023The shikimate pathway is the metabolic process responsible for the biosynthesis of the aromatic amino acids phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan. Seven metabolic steps convert phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) and erythrose 4-phosphate (E4P) into shikimate and ultimately chorismate, which serves as the branch point for dedicated aromatic amino acid biosynthesis. Bacteria, fungi, algae, and plants (yet not animals) biosynthesize chorismate and exploit its intermediates in their specialized metabolism. This review highlights the metabolic diversity derived from intermediates of the shikimate pathway along the seven steps from PEP and E4P to chorismate, as well as additional sections on compounds derived from prephenate, anthranilate and the synonymous aminoshikimate pathway. We discuss the genomic basis and biochemical support leading to shikimate-derived antibiotics, lipids, pigments, cofactors, and other metabolites across the tree of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vikram V Shende
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA.
| | - Katherine D Bauman
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Bradley S Moore
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA.
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
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2
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Kudo F, Eguchi T. Biosynthesis of cyclitols. Nat Prod Rep 2022; 39:1622-1642. [PMID: 35726901 DOI: 10.1039/d2np00024e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Review covering up to 2021Cyclitols derived from carbohydrates are naturally stable hydrophilic substances under ordinary physiological conditions, increasing the water solubility of whole molecules in cells. The stability of cyclitols is derived from their carbocyclic structures bearing no acetal groups, in contrast to sugar molecules. Therefore, carbocycle-forming reactions are critical for the biosynthesis of cyclitols. Herein, we review naturally occurring cyclitols that have been identified to date and categorize them according to the type of carbocycle-forming enzymatic reaction. Furthermore, the cyclitol-forming enzymatic reaction mechanisms and modification pathways of the initially generated cyclitols are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fumitaka Kudo
- Department of Chemistry, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 O-Okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Tadashi Eguchi
- Department of Chemistry, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 O-Okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, Japan.
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3
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Yñigez-Gutierrez AE, Bachmann BO. Fixing the Unfixable: The Art of Optimizing Natural Products for Human Medicine. J Med Chem 2019; 62:8412-8428. [PMID: 31026161 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.9b00246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Molecules isolated from natural sources including bacteria, fungi, and plants are a long-standing source of therapeutics that continue to add to our medicinal arsenal today. Despite their potency and prominence in the clinic, complex natural products often exhibit a number of liabilities that hinder their development as therapeutics, which may be partially responsible for the current trend away from natural product discovery, research, and development. However, advances in synthetic biology and organic synthesis have inspired a new generation of natural product chemists to tackle powerful undeveloped scaffolds. In this Perspective, we will present case studies demonstrating the historical and current focus on making targeted, but significant, changes to natural product scaffolds via biosynthetic gene cluster manipulation, total synthesis, semisynthesis, or a combination of these methods, with a focus on increasing activity, decreasing toxicity, or improving chemical and pharmacological properties.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Brian O Bachmann
- Department of Chemistry , Vanderbilt University , Nashville , Tennessee 37235 , United States
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4
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Eida AA, Mahmud T. The secondary metabolite pactamycin with potential for pharmaceutical applications: biosynthesis and regulation. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2019; 103:4337-4345. [PMID: 31025074 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-019-09831-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Revised: 04/02/2019] [Accepted: 04/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The antitumor antibiotic pactamycin is a highly substituted aminocyclopentitol-derived secondary metabolite produced by the soil bacterium Streptomyces pactum. It has exhibited potent antibacterial, antitumor, antiviral, and antiprotozoal activities. Despite its outstanding biological activities, the complex chemical structure and broad-spectrum toxicity have hampered its development as a therapeutic, limiting its contribution to biomedical science to a role as a molecular probe for ribosomal function. However, a detailed understanding of its biosynthesis and how the biosynthesis is regulated has made it possible to tactically design and produce new pactamycin analogues, some of which have shown improved pharmacological properties. This mini-review describes the biosynthesis, regulation, engineered production, and biological activities of pactamycin and its congeners. It also highlights the suitability of biosynthetic methods as a feasible approach to generate new analogues of complex natural products and underscores the importance of utilizing biosynthetic enzymes as tools for chemoenzymatic production of structurally diverse bioactive compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Auday A Eida
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, 97331-3507, USA
| | - Taifo Mahmud
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, 97331-3507, USA.
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5
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Du YL, Ryan KS. Pyridoxal phosphate-dependent reactions in the biosynthesis of natural products. Nat Prod Rep 2019; 36:430-457. [DOI: 10.1039/c8np00049b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
We review reactions catalyzed by pyridoxal phosphate-dependent enzymes, highlighting enzymes reported in the recent natural product biosynthetic literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Ling Du
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology
- Zhejiang University School of Medicine
- Hangzhou
- China
| | - Katherine S. Ryan
- Department of Chemistry
- University of British Columbia
- Vancouver
- Canada
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6
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Affiliation(s)
- Christof M. Jäger
- University of Nottingham; Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering; NG7 2RD Nottingham United Kingdom
| | - Anna K. Croft
- University of Nottingham; Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering; NG7 2RD Nottingham United Kingdom
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7
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Hirayama A, Miyanaga A, Kudo F, Eguchi T. Mechanism-Based Trapping of the Quinonoid Intermediate by Using the K276R Mutant of PLP-Dependent 3-Aminobenzoate Synthase PctV in the Biosynthesis of Pactamycin. Chembiochem 2015; 16:2484-90. [DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201500426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Akane Hirayama
- Department of Chemistry and Materials Science; Tokyo Institute of Technology; 2-12-1 O-okayama Meguro-ku Tokyo 152-8551 Japan
| | - Akimasa Miyanaga
- Department of Chemistry; Tokyo Institute of Technology; 2-12-1 O-okayama Meguro-ku Tokyo 152-8551 Japan
| | - Fumitaka Kudo
- Department of Chemistry; Tokyo Institute of Technology; 2-12-1 O-okayama Meguro-ku Tokyo 152-8551 Japan
| | - Tadashi Eguchi
- Department of Chemistry and Materials Science; Tokyo Institute of Technology; 2-12-1 O-okayama Meguro-ku Tokyo 152-8551 Japan
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8
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Sharpe RJ, Malinowski JT, Sorana F, Luft JC, Bowerman CJ, DeSimone JM, Johnson JS. Preparation and biological evaluation of synthetic and polymer-encapsulated congeners of the antitumor agent pactamycin: insight into functional group effects and biological activity. Bioorg Med Chem 2015; 23:1849-57. [PMID: 25792144 PMCID: PMC4380168 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2015.02.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2014] [Revised: 02/01/2015] [Accepted: 02/11/2015] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
The synthesis and biological analysis of a number of novel congeners of the aminocyclopentitol pactamycin is described. Specific attention was paid to the preparation of derivatives at crucial synthetic branch points of the parent structure, and biological assays revealed a number of insights into the source of pactamycin's biological activity. Additionally, the encapsulation of pactamycin and select derivatives into the PRINT© nanoparticle technology was investigated as a proof-of-concept, and evidence of bioactivity modulation through nanoparticle delivery is demonstrated. This work has provided heretofore unrealized access to a large number of novel compounds for further evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert J Sharpe
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3290, United States
| | - Justin T Malinowski
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3290, United States
| | - Federico Sorana
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3290, United States
| | - J Christopher Luft
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3290, United States; Department of Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3290, United States
| | - Charles J Bowerman
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3290, United States
| | - Joseph M DeSimone
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3290, United States; Department of Molecular Pharmaceutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3290, United States; Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3290, United States; Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-8613, United States; Carolina Center of Cancer Nanotechnology Excellence, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3290, United States; Institute for Nanomedicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3290, United States; Institute for Advanced Materials, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3290, United States; Sloan-Kettering Institute for Cancer Research, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065-9321, United States
| | - Jeffrey S Johnson
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3290, United States.
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9
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Hirayama A, Eguchi T, Kudo F. A Single PLP-Dependent Enzyme PctV Catalyzes the Transformation of 3-Dehydroshikimate into 3-Aminobenzoate in the Biosynthesis of Pactamycin. Chembiochem 2013; 14:1198-203. [DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201300153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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10
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Hanessian S, Vakiti RR, Chattopadhyay AK, Dorich S, Lavallée C. Probing functional diversity in pactamycin toward antibiotic, antitumor, and antiprotozoal activity. Bioorg Med Chem 2013; 21:1775-86. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2013.01.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2012] [Revised: 01/15/2013] [Accepted: 01/21/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Almabruk KH, Lu W, Li Y, Abugreen M, Kelly JX, Mahmud T. Mutasynthesis of fluorinated pactamycin analogues and their antimalarial activity. Org Lett 2013; 15:1678-81. [PMID: 23521145 DOI: 10.1021/ol4004614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A mutasynthetic strategy has been used to generate fluorinated TM-025 and TM-026, two biosynthetically engineered pactamycin analogues produced by Streptomyces pactum ATCC 27456. The fluorinated compounds maintain excellent activity and selectivity toward chloroquine-sensitive and multidrug-resistant strains of malarial parasites as the parent compounds. The results also provide insights into the biosynthesis of 3-aminobenzoic acid in S. pactum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khaled H Almabruk
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331-3507, United States
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12
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Lu W, Roongsawang N, Mahmud T. Biosynthetic studies and genetic engineering of pactamycin analogs with improved selectivity toward malarial parasites. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 18:425-31. [PMID: 21513878 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2011.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2010] [Revised: 01/05/2011] [Accepted: 01/24/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Pactamycin, one of the most densely functionalized aminocyclitol antibiotics, has pronounced antibacterial, antitumor, antiviral, and antiplasmodial activities, but its development as a clinical drug was hampered by its broad cytotoxicity. Efforts to modulate the biological activity by structural modifications using synthetic organic chemistry have been difficult because of the complexity of its chemical structure. However, through extensive biosynthetic studies and genetic engineering, we were able to produce analogs of pactamycin that show potent antimalarial activity, but lack significant antibacterial activity, and are about 10-30 times less toxic than pactamycin toward mammalian cells. The results suggest that distinct ribosomal binding selectivity or new mechanism(s) of action may be involved in their plasmodial growth inhibition, which may lead to the discovery of new antimalarial drugs and identification of new molecular targets within malarial parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanli Lu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331-3507, USA
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Foroozandeh M, Giraudeau P, Jeannerat D. Broadband 13C-Homodecoupled Heteronuclear Single-Quantum Correlation Nuclear Magnetic Resonance. Chemphyschem 2011; 12:2409-11. [DOI: 10.1002/cphc.201100411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Floss HG, Yu TW, Arakawa K. The biosynthesis of 3-amino-5-hydroxybenzoic acid (AHBA), the precursor of mC7N units in ansamycin and mitomycin antibiotics: a review. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 2010; 64:35-44. [DOI: 10.1038/ja.2010.139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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Kudo F, Kasama Y, Hirayama T, Eguchi T. Cloning of the Pactamycin Biosynthetic Gene Cluster and Characterization of a Crucial Glycosyltransferase Prior to a Unique Cyclopentane Ring Formation. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 2007; 60:492-503. [PMID: 17827660 DOI: 10.1038/ja.2007.63] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The biosynthetic gene (pct) cluster for an antitumor antibiotic pactamycin was identified by use of a gene for putative radical S-adenosylmethionine methyltransferase as a probe. The pct gene cluster is localized to a 34 kb contiguous DNA from Streptomyces pactum NBRC 13433 and contains 24 open reading frames. Based on the bioinformatic analysis, a plausible biosynthetic pathway for pactamycin comprising of a unique cyclopentane ring, 3-aminoacetophenone, and 6-methylsalicylate was proposed. The pctL gene encoding a glycosyltransferase was speculated to be involved in an N-glycoside formation between 3-aminoacetophenone and UDP-N-acetyl-alpha-D-glucosamine prior to a unique cyclopentane ring formation. The pctL gene was then heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli and the enzymatic activity of the recombinant PctL protein was investigated. Consequently, the PctL protein was found to catalyze the expected reaction forming beta-N-glycoside. The enzymatic activity of the PctL protein clearly confirmed that the present identified gene cluster is for the biosynthesis of pactamycin. Also, a glycosylation prior to cyclopentane ring formation was proposed to be a general strategy in the biosynthesis of the structurally related cyclopentane containing compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fumitaka Kudo
- Department of Chemistry, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 O-okayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8551, Japan.
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16
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Flatt PM, Mahmud T. Biosynthesis of aminocyclitol-aminoglycoside antibiotics and related compounds. Nat Prod Rep 2006; 24:358-92. [PMID: 17390001 DOI: 10.1039/b603816f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
This review covers the biosynthesis of aminocyclitol-aminoglycoside antibiotics and related compounds, particularly from the molecular genetic perspectives. 195 references are cited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia M Flatt
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331-3507, USA
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17
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Dong H, Mahmud T, Tornus I, Lee S, Floss HG. Biosynthesis of the validamycins: identification of intermediates in the biosynthesis of validamycin A by Streptomyces hygroscopicus var. limoneus. J Am Chem Soc 2001; 123:2733-42. [PMID: 11456959 DOI: 10.1021/ja003643n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
To study the biosynthesis of the pseudotrisaccharide antibiotic, validamycin A (1), a number of potential precursors of the antibiotic were synthesized in (2)H-, (3)H-, or (13)C-labeled form and fed to cultures of Streptomyces hygroscopicus var. limoneus. The resulting validamycin A from each of these feeding experiments was isolated, purified and analyzed by liquid scintillation counting, (2)H- or (13)C NMR or selective ion monitoring mass spectrometry (SIM-MS) techniques. The results demonstrate that 2-epi-5-epi-valiolone (9) is specifically incorporated into 1 and labels both cyclitol moieties. This suggests that 9 is the initial cyclization product generated from an open-chain C(7) precursor, D-sedoheptulose 7-phosphate (5), by a DHQ synthase-like cyclization mechanism. A more proximate precursor of 1 is valienone (11), which is also incorporated into both cyclitol moieties. The conversion of 9 into 11 involves first epimerization to 5-epi-valiolone (10), which is efficiently incorporated into 1, followed by dehydration, although a low level of incorporation of 2-epi-valienone (15) is also observed. Reduction of 11 affords validone (12), which is also incorporated specifically into 1, but labels only the reduced cyclitol moiety. The mode of introduction of the nitrogen atom linking the two pseudosaccharide moieties is not clear yet. 7-Tritiated valiolamine (8), valienamine (2), and validamine (3) were all not incorporated into 1, although each of these amines has been isolated from the fermentation, with 3 being most prevalent. Demonstration of in vivo formation of [7-(3)H]validamine ([7-(3)H]-3) from [7-(3)H]-12 suggests that 3 may be a pathway intermediate and that the nonincorporation of [7-(3)H]-3 into 1 is due to a lack of cellular uptake. We thus propose that 3, formed by amination of 12, and 11 condense to form a Schiff base, which is reduced to the pseudodisaccharide unit, validoxylamine A (13). Transfer of a D-glucose unit to the 4'-position of 13 then completes the biosynthesis of 1. Other possibilities for the mechanism of formation of the nitrogen bridge between the two pseudosaccharide units are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Dong
- Department of Chemistry, Box 351700, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-1700, USA
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19
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Funayama S, Cordell GA. Ansamycin antibioticsA discovery, classification, biosynthesis and biological activities. BIOACTIVE NATURAL PRODUCTS (PART D) 2000. [DOI: 10.1016/s1572-5995(00)80127-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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Affiliation(s)
- I Sattler
- Hans-Knöll-Institut für Naturstoff-Forschung, Jena, Germany
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21
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Affiliation(s)
- H G Floss
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle 98195-1700, USA
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Murayaanthraquinone, a hybrid benz[a]anthraquinone from a UV mutant of Streptomyces murayamaensis. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 1995. [DOI: 10.1016/0960-894x(95)00006-f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Affiliation(s)
- R Bentley
- Department of Chemistry, University of Sheffield, U.K
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[2,3,4,6,6-2H5]-d-glucose as a general probe for sugar transformations in microbial metabolism: Application to the biosynthesis of sarubicin A, blasticidin S, and streptothricin F. Bioorg Chem 1988. [DOI: 10.1016/0045-2068(88)90014-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Herbert RB, Knaggs AR. The biosynthesis of the antibiotic obafluorin from p-aminophenylalanine in Pseudomonas fluorescens. Tetrahedron Lett 1988. [DOI: 10.1016/s0040-4039(00)82345-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Newer Methods for Characterization of Antibiotics I: Stable Isotopes in the Study of Antibiotic Synthesis. Nat Biotechnol 1983. [DOI: 10.1038/nbt0883-495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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30
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