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Li W, Liao S, Xiang Z, Huang M, Fu Z, Li L, Liang Z. Thermodynamic regulation over nano-heterogeneous structure of electrolyte solution to improve stability of flow batteries. Chem Eng Sci 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ces.2023.118534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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2
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Preet Kaur A, Neyhouse BJ, Shkrob IA, Wang Y, Harsha Attanayake N, Kant Jha R, Wu Q, Zhang L, Ewoldt RH, Brushett FR, Odom SA. Concentration-dependent Cycling of Phenothiazine-based Electrolytes in Nonaqueous Redox Flow Cells. Chem Asian J 2023; 18:e202201171. [PMID: 36632659 DOI: 10.1002/asia.202201171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2022] [Revised: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Increasing redox-active species concentrations can improve viability for organic redox flow batteries by enabling higher energy densities, but the required concentrated solutions can become viscous and less conductive, leading to inefficient electrochemical cycling and low material utilization at higher current densities. To better understand these tradeoffs in a model system, we study a highly soluble and stable redox-active couple, N-(2-(2-methoxyethoxy)ethyl)phenothiazine (MEEPT), and its bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide radical cation salt (MEEPT-TFSI). We measure the physicochemical properties of electrolytes containing 0.2-1 M active species and connect these to symmetric cell cycling behavior, achieving robust cycling performance. Specifically, for a 1 M electrolyte concentration, we demonstrate 94% materials utilization, 89% capacity retention, and 99.8% average coulombic efficiency over 435 h (100 full cycles). This demonstration helps to establish potential for high-performing, concentrated nonaqueous electrolytes and highlights possible failure modes in such systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aman Preet Kaur
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA.,Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA
| | - Bertrand J Neyhouse
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.,Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Ilya A Shkrob
- Chemical Sciences and Engineering Division, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois, USA.,Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, IL 60439, USA
| | - Yilin Wang
- Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61820, USA.,Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61820, USA
| | - N Harsha Attanayake
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA.,Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA
| | - Rahul Kant Jha
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA
| | - Qianwen Wu
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61820, USA
| | - Lu Zhang
- Chemical Sciences and Engineering Division, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois, USA.,Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, IL 60439, USA
| | - Randy H Ewoldt
- Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61820, USA.,Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61820, USA
| | - Fikile R Brushett
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.,Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Susan A Odom
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA.,Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA
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3
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Farag H, Kaur AP, Robertson LA, Sarnello E, Liu X, Wang Y, Cheng L, Shkrob IA, Zhang L, Ewoldt RH, Li T, Odom SA, Y Z. Softening by charging: how collective modes of ionic association in concentrated redoxmer/electrolyte solutions define the structural and dynamic properties in different states of charge. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2023; 25:4243-4254. [PMID: 36661750 DOI: 10.1039/d2cp04220g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the physical and chemical processes occurring in concentrated electrolyte solutions is required to achieve redox flow batteries with high energy density. Highly concentrated electrolyte solutions are often studied in which collective crowded interactions between molecules and ions become predominant. Herein, experimental and computational methods were used to examine non-aqueous electrolyte solutions in two different states of charge as a function of redoxmer concentration. As the latter increases and the ionic association strengthens, the electric conductivity passes through a maximum and the solution increasingly gels, which is seen through a rapid non-linear increase in viscosity. We establish that the structural rigidity of ionic networks is closely connected with this loss of fluidity and show that charging generally yields softer ionic assemblies with weaker attractive forces and improved dynamical properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hossam Farag
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research.,Department of Nuclear, Plasma, and Radiological Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA. .,Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
| | - Aman Preet Kaur
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research.,Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506, USA
| | - Lily A Robertson
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research.,Chemical Sciences and Engineering Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, USA
| | - Erik Sarnello
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois 60115, USA
| | - Xinyi Liu
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois 60115, USA
| | - Yilin Wang
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research.,Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA.,Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
| | - Lei Cheng
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research.,Materials Sciences Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, USA
| | - Ilya A Shkrob
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research.,Chemical Sciences and Engineering Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, USA
| | - Lu Zhang
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research.,Chemical Sciences and Engineering Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, USA
| | - Randy H Ewoldt
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research.,Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA.,Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
| | - Tao Li
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research.,X-ray Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, USA.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois 60115, USA
| | - Susan A Odom
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research.,Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506, USA
| | - Y Z
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research.,Department of Nuclear, Plasma, and Radiological Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA. .,Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA.,Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
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4
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Sala G, Mourigal M, Boone C, Butch NP, Christianson AD, Delaire O, DeSantis AJ, Hart CL, Hermann RP, Huegle T, Kent DN, Lin JYY, Lumsden MD, Manley ME, Quirinale DG, Stone MB, Z Y. CHESS: The future direct geometry spectrometer at the second target station. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2022; 93:065109. [PMID: 35778024 DOI: 10.1063/5.0089740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
CHESS, chopper spectrometer examining small samples, is a planned direct geometry neutron chopper spectrometer designed to detect and analyze weak signals intrinsic to small cross sections (e.g., small mass, small magnetic moments, or neutron absorbing materials) in powders, liquids, and crystals. CHESS is optimized to enable transformative investigations of quantum materials, spin liquids, thermoelectrics, battery materials, and liquids. The broad dynamic range of the instrument is also well suited to study relaxation processes and excitations in soft and biological matter. The 15 Hz repetition rate of the Second Target Station at the Spallation Neutron Source enables the use of multiple incident energies within a single source pulse, greatly expanding the information gained in a single measurement. Furthermore, the high flux grants an enhanced capability for polarization analysis. This enables the separation of nuclear from magnetic scattering or coherent from incoherent scattering in hydrogenous materials over a large range of energy and momentum transfer. This paper presents optimizations and technical solutions to address the key requirements envisioned in the science case and the anticipated uses of this instrument.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Sala
- Spallation Neutron Source, Second Target Station, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, USA
| | - M Mourigal
- School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, USA
| | - C Boone
- Spallation Neutron Source, Second Target Station, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, USA
| | - N P Butch
- NIST Center for Neutron Research, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, USA
| | - A D Christianson
- Materials Science and Technology Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, USA
| | - O Delaire
- Department of Physics, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
| | - A J DeSantis
- Spallation Neutron Source, Second Target Station, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, USA
| | - C L Hart
- Spallation Neutron Source, Second Target Station, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, USA
| | - R P Hermann
- Materials Science and Technology Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, USA
| | - T Huegle
- Neutron Technology Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, USA
| | - D N Kent
- Spallation Neutron Source, Second Target Station, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, USA
| | - J Y Y Lin
- Spallation Neutron Source, Second Target Station, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, USA
| | - M D Lumsden
- Neutron Scattering Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, USA
| | - M E Manley
- Materials Science and Technology Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, USA
| | - D G Quirinale
- Neutron Scattering Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, USA
| | - M B Stone
- Neutron Scattering Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, USA
| | - Y Z
- Department of Nuclear, Plasma, and Radiological Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
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5
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Zhang C, Chen H, Qian Y, Dai G, Zhao Y, Yu G. General Design Methodology for Organic Eutectic Electrolytes toward High-Energy-Density Redox Flow Batteries. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2021; 33:e2008560. [PMID: 33687776 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202008560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
By virtue of strong molecular interactions, eutectic electrolytes provide highly concentrated redox-active materials without other auxiliary solvents, hence achieving high volumetric capacities and energy density for redox flow batteries (RFBs). However, it is critical to unveil the underlying mechanism in this system, which will be undoubtedly beneficial for their future research on high-energy storage systems. Herein, a general formation mechanism of organic eutectic electrolytes (OEEs) is developed, and it is found that molecules with specific functional groups such as carbonyl (CO), nitroxyl radical (NO•), and methoxy (OCH3 ) groups can coordinate with alkali metal fluorinated sulfonylimide salts (especially for bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, TFSI), thereby forming OEEs. Molecular designs further demonstrate that the redox-inactive methoxy group functionalized ferrocene derivative maintains the liquid OEE at both reduced and oxidized states. Over threefold increase in solubility is obtained (2.8 m for ferrocene derivative OEE) and high actual discharge energy density of 188 Wh L-1 (75% of the theoretical value) is achieved in the Li hybrid cell. The established mechanism presents new ways of designing desirable electrolytes through molecular interactions for the development of high-energy-density organic RFBs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changkun Zhang
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, Texas Materials Institute, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
| | - Hui Chen
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials and Devices, Collaborative Innovation Center of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology, Joint International Research Laboratory of Carbon-Based Functional Materials and Devices, Soochow University, 199 Renai Road, Suzhou Industrial Park, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215123, China
| | - Yumin Qian
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, Texas Materials Institute, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
| | - Gaole Dai
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials and Devices, Collaborative Innovation Center of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology, Joint International Research Laboratory of Carbon-Based Functional Materials and Devices, Soochow University, 199 Renai Road, Suzhou Industrial Park, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215123, China
| | - Yu Zhao
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Carbon-Based Functional Materials and Devices, Collaborative Innovation Center of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology, Joint International Research Laboratory of Carbon-Based Functional Materials and Devices, Soochow University, 199 Renai Road, Suzhou Industrial Park, Suzhou, Jiangsu, 215123, China
| | - Guihua Yu
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, Texas Materials Institute, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 78712, USA
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6
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Shkrob IA, Li T, Sarnello E, Robertson LA, Zhao Y, Farag H, Yu Z, Zhang J, Bheemireddy SR, Z Y, Assary RS, Ewoldt RH, Cheng L, Zhang L. Self-Assembled Solute Networks in Crowded Electrolyte Solutions and Nanoconfinement of Charged Redoxmer Molecules. J Phys Chem B 2020; 124:10226-10236. [PMID: 33119315 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.0c07760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Redoxmers are electrochemically active organic molecules storing charge and energy in electrolyte fluids circulating through redox flow batteries (RFBs). Such molecules typically have solvent-repelling cores and solvent-attracting pendant groups introduced to increase solubility in liquid electrolytes. These two features can facilitate nanoscale aggregation of the redoxmer molecules in crowded solutions. In some cases, this aggregation leads to the emergence of continuous networks of solute molecules in contact, and the solution becomes microscopically heterogeneous. Here, we use small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and molecular dynamics modeling to demonstrate formation of such networks and examine structural factors controlling this self-assembly. We also show that salt ions become excluded from these solute aggregates into small pockets of electrolytes, where these ions strongly associate. This confinement by exclusion is also likely to occur to charged redoxmer molecules in a "sea" of neutral precursors coexisting in the same solution. Here, we demonstrate that the decay lifetime of the confined charged molecules in such solutions can increase several fold compared to dilute solutions. We attribute this behavior to a "microreactor effect" on reverse reactions of the confined species during their decomposition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilya A Shkrob
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States.,Chemical Sciences and Engineering Division, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Tao Li
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois 60115, United States
| | - Erik Sarnello
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois 60115, United States
| | - Lily A Robertson
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States.,Chemical Sciences and Engineering Division, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Yuyue Zhao
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States.,Chemical Sciences and Engineering Division, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Hossam Farag
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States.,Department of Nuclear, Plasma, and Radiological Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States.,Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Zhou Yu
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States.,Material Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Jingjing Zhang
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States.,Chemical Sciences and Engineering Division, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Sambasiva R Bheemireddy
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States.,Chemical Sciences and Engineering Division, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Y Z
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States.,Department of Nuclear, Plasma, and Radiological Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States.,Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States.,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States.,Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Rajeev S Assary
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States.,Material Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Randy H Ewoldt
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States.,Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Lei Cheng
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States.,Material Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Lu Zhang
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States.,Chemical Sciences and Engineering Division, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Avenue, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States
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7
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Li Z, Robertson LA, Shkrob IA, Smith KC, Cheng L, Zhang L, Moore JS, Z Y. Realistic Ion Dynamics through Charge Renormalization in Nonaqueous Electrolytes. J Phys Chem B 2020; 124:3214-3220. [PMID: 32207623 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.0c01197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
While many practically important electrolytes contain lithium ions, interactions of these ions are particularly difficult to probe experimentally because of their small X-ray and neutron scattering cross sections and large neutron absorption cross sections. Molecular dynamics (MD) is a powerful tool for understanding the properties of nonaqueous electrolyte solutions from the atomic level, but the accuracy of this computational method crucially depends on the physics built into the classical force field. Here, we demonstrate that several force fields for lithium bistriflimide (LiTFSI) in acetonitrile yield a solution structure that is consistent with the neutron scattering experiments, yet these models produce dramatically different ion dynamics in solution. Such glaring discrepancies indicate that inadequate representation of long-range interactions leads to excessive ionic association and ion-pair clustering. We show that reasonable agreement with the experimental observations can be achieved by renormalization of the ion charges using a "titration" method suggested herewith. This simple modification produces realistic concentration dependencies for ionic diffusion and conductivity in <2 M solutions, without loss in quality for simulation of the structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhixia Li
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States.,Department of Nuclear, Plasma, and Radiological Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois61801, United States.,Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois61801, United States
| | - Lily A Robertson
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States.,Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois61801, United States.,Chemical Sciences and Engineering Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois60439, United States
| | - Ilya A Shkrob
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States.,Chemical Sciences and Engineering Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois60439, United States
| | - Kyle C Smith
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois61801, United States.,Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois61801, United States.,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois61801, United States.,Program of Computational Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois61801, United States
| | - Lei Cheng
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States.,Materials Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois60439, United States
| | - Lu Zhang
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States.,Chemical Sciences and Engineering Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois60439, United States
| | - Jeffrey S Moore
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States.,Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois61801, United States.,Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois61801, United States.,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois61801, United States
| | - Y Z
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States.,Department of Nuclear, Plasma, and Radiological Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois61801, United States.,Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois61801, United States.,Program of Computational Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois61801, United States.,Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois61801, United States
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