Temperature-Resolved Cryo-EM Uncovers Structural Bases of Temperature-Dependent Enzyme Functions

Molecular Mechanism of pH-Induced Protrusion Configuration Switching in Piscine Betanodavirus Implies a Novel Antiviral Strategy

Many viruses contain surface spikes or protrusions that are essential for virus entry. These surface structures can thereby be targeted by antiviral drugs to treat viral infections. Nervous necrosis virus (NNV), a simple nonenveloped virus in the genus of betanodavirus, infects fish and damages aquaculture worldwide. NNV has 60 conspicuous surface protrusions, each comprising three protrusion domains (P-domain) of its capsid protein. NNV uses protrusions to bind to common receptors of sialic acids on the host cell surface to initiate its entry via the endocytic pathway. However, structural alterations of NNV in response to acidic conditions encountered during this pathway remain unknown, while detailed interactions of protrusions with receptors are unclear. Here, we used cryo-EM to discover that Grouper NNV protrusions undergo low-pH-induced compaction and resting. NMR and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations were employed to probe the atomic details. A solution structure of the P-domain at pH 7.0 revealed a long flexible loop (amino acids 311-330) and a pocket outlined by this loop. Molecular docking analysis showed that the N-terminal moiety of sialic acid inserted into this pocket to interact with conserved residues inside. MD simulations demonstrated that part of this loop converted to a β-strand under acidic conditions, allowing for P-domain trimerization and compaction. Additionally, a low-pH-favored conformation is attained for the linker connecting the P-domain to the NNV shell, conferring resting protrusions. Our findings uncover novel pH-dependent conformational switching mechanisms underlying NNV protrusion dynamics potentially utilized for facilitating NNV entry, providing new structural insights into complex NNV-host interactions with the identification of putative druggable hotspots on the protrusion.

A structural perspective on the temperature-dependent activity of enzymes

Enzymes are biomolecular catalysts whose activity varies with temperature. Unlike for small-molecule catalysts, the structural ensembles of enzymes can vary substantially with temperature, and it is in general unclear how this modulates the temperature dependence of activity. Here multi-temperature X-ray crystallography was used to record structural changes from -20°C to 40°C for a mesophilic enzyme in complex with inhibitors mimicking substrate-, intermediate-, and product-bound states, representative of major complexes underlying the kinetic constantk c a t . Both inhibitors, substrates and catalytically relevant loop motifs increasingly populate catalytically competent conformations as temperature increases. These changes occur even in temperature ranges where kinetic measurements show roughly linear Arrhenius/Eyring behavior where parameters characterizing the system are assumed to be temperature independent. Simple analysis shows that linear Arrhenius/Eyring behavior can still be observed when the underlying activation energy / enthalpy values vary with temperature, e.g., due to structural changes, and that the underlying thermodynamic parameters can be far from values derived from Arrhenius/Eyring model fits. Our results indicate a critical role for temperature-dependent atomic-resolution structural data in interpreting temperature-dependent kinetic data from enzymatic systems.

Towards interpretable Cryo-EM: disentangling latent spaces of molecular conformations

Molecules are essential building blocks of life and their different conformations (i.e., shapes) crucially determine the functional role that they play in living organisms. Cryogenic Electron Microscopy (cryo-EM) allows for acquisition of large image datasets of individual molecules. Recent advances in computational cryo-EM have made it possible to learn latent variable models of conformation landscapes. However, interpreting these latent spaces remains a challenge as their individual dimensions are often arbitrary. The key message of our work is that this interpretation challenge can be viewed as an Independent Component Analysis (ICA) problem where we seek models that have the property of identifiability. That means, they have an essentially unique solution, representing a conformational latent space that separates the different degrees of freedom a molecule is equipped with in nature. Thus, we aim to advance the computational field of cryo-EM beyond visualizations as we connect it with the theoretical framework of (nonlinear) ICA and discuss the need for identifiable models, improved metrics, and benchmarks. Moving forward, we propose future directions for enhancing the disentanglement of latent spaces in cryo-EM, refining evaluation metrics and exploring techniques that leverage physics-based decoders of biomolecular systems. Moreover, we discuss how future technological developments in time-resolved single particle imaging may enable the application of nonlinear ICA models that can discover the true conformation changes of molecules in nature. The pursuit of interpretable conformational latent spaces will empower researchers to unravel complex biological processes and facilitate targeted interventions. This has significant implications for drug discovery and structural biology more broadly. More generally, latent variable models are deployed widely across many scientific disciplines. Thus, the argument we present in this work has much broader applications in AI for science if we want to move from impressive nonlinear neural network models to mathematically grounded methods that can help us learn something new about nature.

Towards Interpretable Cryo-EM: Disentangling Latent Spaces of Molecular Conformations

Molecules are essential building blocks of life and their different conformations (i.e., shapes) crucially determine the functional role that they play in living organisms. Cryogenic Electron Microscopy (cryo-EM) allows for acquisition of large image datasets of individual molecules. Recent advances in computational cryo-EM have made it possible to learn latent variable models of conformation landscapes. However, interpreting these latent spaces remains a challenge as their individual dimensions are often arbitrary. The key message of our work is that this interpretation challenge can be viewed as an Independent Component Analysis (ICA) problem where we seek models that have the property of identifiability. That means, they have an essentially unique solution, representing a conformational latent space that separates the different degrees of freedom a molecule is equipped with in nature. Thus, we aim to advance the computational field of cryo-EM beyond visualizations as we connect it with the theoretical framework of (nonlinear) ICA and discuss the need for identifiable models, improved metrics, and benchmarks. Moving forward, we propose future directions for enhancing the disentanglement of latent spaces in cryo-EM, refining evaluation metrics and exploring techniques that leverage physics-based decoders of biomolecular systems. Moreover, we discuss how future technological developments in time-resolved single particle imaging may enable the application of nonlinear ICA models that can discover the true conformation changes of molecules in nature. The pursuit of interpretable conformational latent spaces will empower researchers to unravel complex biological processes and facilitate targeted interventions. This has significant implications for drug discovery and structural biology more broadly. More generally, latent variable models are deployed widely across many scientific disciplines. Thus, the argument we present in this work has much broader applications in AI for science if we want to move from impressive nonlinear neural network models to mathematically grounded methods that can help us learn something new about nature.

Visualizing the DNA repair process by a photolyase at atomic resolution

Photolyases, a ubiquitous class of flavoproteins, use blue light to repair DNA photolesions. In this work, we determined the structural mechanism of the photolyase-catalyzed repair of a cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer (CPD) lesion using time-resolved serial femtosecond crystallography (TR-SFX). We obtained 18 snapshots that show time-dependent changes in four reaction loci. We used these results to create a movie that depicts the repair of CPD lesions in the picosecond-to-nanosecond range, followed by the recovery of the enzymatic moieties involved in catalysis, completing the formation of the fully reduced enzyme-product complex at 500 nanoseconds. Finally, back-flip intermediates of the thymine bases to reanneal the DNA were captured at 25 to 200 microseconds. Our data cover the complete molecular mechanism of a photolyase and, importantly, its chemistry and enzymatic catalysis at work across a wide timescale and at atomic resolution.

Ligand-induced conformational changes enable intersubunit communications in D-dopachrome tautomerase

D-Dopachrome tautomerase (D-DT; or MIF-2) is a multifunctional protein with immunomodulatory properties and a documented pathogenic role in inflammation and cancer that is associated with activation of the cell surface receptor CD74. Alongside D-DT, macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) is also known to activate CD74, promoting pathogenesis. While the role of the MIF/CD74 axis has been extensively studied in various disease models, the late discovery of the D-DT/CD74 axis has led to a poor investigation into the D-DT-induced activation mechanism of CD74. A previous study has identified 4-(3-carboxyphenyl)-2,5-pyridinedicarboxylic acid (4-CPPC) as the first selective and reversible inhibitor of D-DT and reported its potency to block the D-DT-induced activation of CD74 in a cell-based model. In this study, we employ molecular dynamics simulations and nuclear magnetic resonance experiments to study 4-CPPC-induced changes to the dynamic profile of D-DT. We found that binding of the inhibitor remarkably promotes the conformational flexibility of C-terminal without impacting the structural stability of the biological assembly. Consequently, long-range intrasubunit (>11 Å) and intersubunit (>30 Å) communications are enabled between distal regions. Communication across the three subunits is accomplished via 4-CPPC, which serves as a communication bridge after Val113 is displaced from its hydrophobic pocket. This previously unrecognized structural property of D-DT is not shared with its human homolog, MIF, which exhibits an impressive C-terminal rigidity even in the presence of an inhibitor. Considering the previously reported role of MIF's C-terminal in the activation of CD74, our results break new ground for understanding the functionality of D-DT in health and disease.

Customising the plunge-freezing workflow for challenging conditions

Grid freezing is a critical step for successful cryo-transmission electron microscopy, and optimising freezing conditions is a considerable bottleneck in many projects. To improve reproducibility in grid preparation, temperature- and humidity-controlled chambers were built into the second generation of plunge-freezers, including the ThermoFisherScientific Vitrobot and Leica GP. Since then, for most published structures, the proteins were plunge-frozen from a cold, humid environment. This provides two benefits: many proteins are more stable at 4 °C than room temperature, and both the low temperature and the humidity help control evaporation of the tiny drop of liquid. However, for optimal stability, certain samples may have different requirements. Here, we describe various (reversible) adaptations made to a Leica GP2 system to accommodate several samples with special handling requirements: a protein that is sensitive to both light and oxygen, a sample that needs to be kept at 37 °C throughout the plunge-freezing process, and a method to freeze a polymer that gels at 37 °C in its gelled state. While some of these methods are specific to these specimens, we hope sharing the ideas behind them will help people who are dealing with tricky protein samples.

Microsecond melting and revitrification of cryo samples: protein structure and beam-induced motion

A novel approach to time-resolved cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) has recently been introduced that involves melting a cryo sample with a laser beam to allow protein dynamics to briefly occur in the liquid, before trapping the particles in their transient configurations by rapidly revitrifying the sample. With a time resolution of just a few microseconds, this approach is notably fast enough to study the domain motions that are typically associated with the activity of proteins but which have previously remained inaccessible. Here, crucial details are added to the characterization of the method. It is shown that single-particle reconstructions of apoferritin and Cowpea chlorotic mottle virus from revitrified samples are indistinguishable from those from conventional samples, demonstrating that melting and revitrification leaves the particles intact and that they do not undergo structural changes within the spatial resolution afforded by the instrument. How rapid revitrification affects the properties of the ice is also characterized, showing that revitrified samples exhibit comparable amounts of beam-induced motion. The results pave the way for microsecond time-resolved studies of the conformational dynamics of proteins and open up new avenues to study the vitrification process and to address beam-induced specimen movement.

Open Structural Data in Precision Medicine

Three-dimensional protein structural data at the molecular level are pivotal for successful precision medicine. Such data are crucial not only for discovering drugs that act to block the active site of the target mutant protein but also for clarifying to the patient and the clinician how the mutations harbored by the patient work. The relative paucity of structural data reflects their cost, challenges in their interpretation, and lack of clinical guidelines for their utilization. Rapid technological advancements in experimental high-resolution structural determination increasingly generate structures. Computationally, modeling algorithms, including molecular dynamics simulations, are becoming more powerful, as are compute-intensive hardware, particularly graphics processing units, overlapping with the inception of the exascale era. Accessible, freely available, and detailed structural and dynamical data can be merged with big data to powerfully transform personalized pharmacology. Here we review protein and emerging genome high-resolution data, along with means, applications, and examples underscoring their usefulness in precision medicine. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Biomedical Data Science, Volume 5 is August 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Effects of cryo-EM cooling on structural ensembles

Structure determination by cryo electron microscopy (cryo-EM) provides information on structural heterogeneity and ensembles at atomic resolution. To obtain cryo-EM images of macromolecules, the samples are first rapidly cooled down to cryogenic temperatures. To what extent the structural ensemble is perturbed during cooling is currently unknown. Here, to quantify the effects of cooling, we combined continuum model calculations of the temperature drop, molecular dynamics simulations of a ribosome complex before and during cooling with kinetic models. Our results suggest that three effects markedly contribute to the narrowing of the structural ensembles: thermal contraction, reduced thermal motion within local potential wells, and the equilibration into lower free-energy conformations by overcoming separating free-energy barriers. During cooling, barrier heights below 10 kJ/mol were found to be overcome, which is expected to reduce B-factors in ensembles imaged by cryo-EM. Our approach now enables the quantification of the heterogeneity of room-temperature ensembles from cryo-EM structures.

Annealing synchronizes the 70S ribosome into a minimum-energy conformation

Researchers commonly anneal metals, alloys, and semiconductors to repair defects and improve microstructures via recrystallization. Theoretical studies indicate that simulated annealing on biological macromolecules helps predict the final structures with minimum free energy. Experimental validation of this homogenizing effect and further exploration of its applications are fascinating scientific questions that remain elusive. Here, we chose the apo-state 70S ribosome from Escherichia coli as a model, wherein the 30S subunit undergoes a thermally driven intersubunit rotation and exhibits substantial structural flexibility as well as distinct free energy. We experimentally demonstrate that annealing at a fast cooling rate enhances the 70S ribosome homogeneity and improves local resolution on the 30S subunit. After annealing, the 70S ribosome is in a nonrotated state with respect to corresponding intermediate structures in unannealed or heated ribosomes. Manifold-based analysis further indicates that the annealed 70S ribosome takes a narrow conformational distribution and exhibits a minimum-energy state in the free-energy landscape. Our experimental results offer a facile yet robust approach to enhance protein stability, which is ideal for high-resolution cryogenic electron microscopy. Beyond structure determination, annealing shows great potential for synchronizing proteins on a single-molecule level and can be extended to study protein folding and explore conformational and energy landscapes.

Conformational ensembles of intrinsically disordered proteins and flexible multidomain proteins

Intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) and multidomain proteins with flexible linkers show a high level of structural heterogeneity and are best described by ensembles consisting of multiple conformations with associated thermodynamic weights. Determining conformational ensembles usually involves the integration of biophysical experiments and computational models. In this review, we discuss current approaches to determine conformational ensembles of IDPs and multidomain proteins, including the choice of biophysical experiments, computational models used to sample protein conformations, models to calculate experimental observables from protein structure, and methods to refine ensembles against experimental data. We also provide examples of recent applications of integrative conformational ensemble determination to study IDPs and multidomain proteins and suggest future directions for research in the field.

Accurate Machine Learning Prediction of Protein Circular Dichroism Spectra with Embedded Density Descriptors

A data-driven approach to simulate circular dichroism (CD) spectra is appealing for fast protein secondary structure determination, yet the challenge of predicting electric and magnetic transition dipole moments poses a substantial barrier for the goal. To address this problem, we designed a new machine learning (ML) protocol in which ordinary pure geometry-based descriptors are replaced with alternative embedded density descriptors and electric and magnetic transition dipole moments are successfully predicted with an accuracy comparable to first-principle calculation. The ML model is able to not only simulate protein CD spectra nearly 4 orders of magnitude faster than conventional first-principle simulation but also obtain CD spectra in good agreement with experiments. Finally, we predicted a series of CD spectra of the Trp-cage protein associated with continuous changes of protein configuration along its folding path, showing the potential of our ML model for supporting real-time CD spectroscopy study of protein dynamics.

Enzymology and Dynamics by Cryogenic Electron Microscopy

Cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM) has revolutionized the field of structural biology, particularly in solving the structures of large protein complexes or cellular machineries that play important biological functions. This review focuses on the contribution and future potential of cryo-EM in related emerging applications-enzymatic mechanisms and dynamic processes. Work on these subjects can benefit greatly from the capability of cryo-EM to solve the structures of specific protein complexes in multiple conditions, including variations in the buffer condition, ligands, and temperature, and to capture multiple conformational states, conformational change intermediates, and reaction intermediates. These studies can expand the structural landscape of specific proteins or protein complexes in multiple dimensions and drive new advances in the fields of enzymology and dynamic processes. The advantages and complementarity of cryo-EM relative to X-ray crystallography and nuclear magnetic resonance with regard to these applications are also addressed. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Biophysics, Volume 51 is May 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Cryo-EM Analyses Permit Visualization of Structural Polymorphism of Biological Macromolecules

The functions of biological macromolecules are often associated with conformational malleability of the structures. This phenomenon of chemically identical molecules with different structures is coined structural polymorphism. Conventionally, structural polymorphism is observed directly by structural determination at the density map level from X-ray crystal diffraction. Although crystallography approach can report the conformation of a macromolecule with the position of each atom accurately defined in it, the exploration of structural polymorphism and interpreting biological function in terms of crystal structures is largely constrained by the crystal packing. An alternative approach to studying the macromolecule of interest in solution is thus desirable. With the advancement of instrumentation and computational methods for image analysis and reconstruction, cryo-electron microscope (cryo-EM) has been transformed to be able to produce “in solution” structures of macromolecules routinely with resolutions comparable to crystallography but without the need of crystals. Since the sample preparation of single-particle cryo-EM allows for all forms co-existing in solution to be simultaneously frozen, the image data contain rich information as to structural polymorphism. The ensemble of structure information can be subsequently disentangled through three-dimensional (3D) classification analyses. In this review, we highlight important examples of protein structural polymorphism in relation to allostery, subunit cooperativity and function plasticity recently revealed by cryo-EM analyses, and review recent developments in 3D classification algorithms including neural network/deep learning approaches that would enable cryo-EM analyese in this regard. Finally, we brief the frontier of cryo-EM structure determination of RNA molecules where resolving the structural polymorphism is at dawn.

Structural Rearrangements of a Dodecameric Ketol-Acid Reductoisomerase Isolated from a Marine Thermophilic Methanogen

Ketol-acid reductoisomerase (KARI) orchestrates the biosynthesis of branched-chain amino acids, an elementary reaction in prototrophic organisms as well as a valuable process in biotechnology. Bacterial KARIs belonging to class I organise as dimers or dodecamers and were intensively studied to understand their remarkable specificity towards NADH or NADPH, but also to develop antibiotics. Here, we present the first structural study on a KARI natively isolated from a methanogenic archaea. The dodecameric structure of 0.44-MDa was obtained in two different conformations, an open and close state refined to a resolution of 2.2-Å and 2.1-Å, respectively. These structures illustrate the conformational movement required for substrate and coenzyme binding. While the close state presents the complete NADP bound in front of a partially occupied Mg2+-site, the Mg2+-free open state contains a tartrate at the nicotinamide location and a bound NADP with the adenine-nicotinamide protruding out of the active site. Structural comparisons show a very high conservation of the active site environment and detailed analyses point towards few specific residues required for the dodecamerisation. These residues are not conserved in other dodecameric KARIs that stabilise their trimeric interface differently, suggesting that dodecamerisation, the cellular role of which is still unknown, might have occurred several times in the evolution of KARIs.

Double Proton Transfer during a Novel Tertiary α-Ketol Rearrangement in Ketol-Acid Reductoisomerase: A Water-Mediated, Metal-Catalyzed, Base-Induced Mechanism

(KARI) catalyzes the conversion of (S)-2-acetolactate or (S)-2-aceto-2-hydroxybutyrate to 2,3-dihydroxy-3-alkylbutyrate, the second step in the biosynthesis of branched chain amino acids (BCAAs). Because the BCAA biosynthetic pathway is present in bacteria, plants, and fungi, but absent in animals, it is an excellent target for the development of new-generation antibiotics and herbicides. Nevertheless, the mechanism of the KARI-catalyzed reaction has not yet been fully solved. In this study, we used iterative molecular dynamics (MD) flexible fitting-Rosetta techniques to optimize the three-dimensional solution structure of archaea KARI from Sulfolobus solfataricus (Sso-KARI) determined from cryo-electron microscopy. On the basis of the structure of the Sso-KARI/2Mg²⁺/NADH/(S)-2-acetolactate complex, we deciphered the catalytic mechanism of the KARI-mediated reaction through hybrid quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics MD simulations in conjunction with umbrella sampling. With an activation energy of only 6.06 kcal/mol, a water-mediated, metal-catalyzed, base-induced (WMMCBI) mechanism was preferred for deprotonation of the tertiary OH group of (S)-2-acetolactate in Sso-KARI. The WMMCBI mechanism for double proton transfer occurred within a proton wire route with two steps involving the formation of hydroxide: (i) Glu233 served as a general base to deprotonate the Mg²⁺-bound water, forming a hydroxide-coordinated Mg²⁺ ion; (ii) this hydroxide ion acted as a strong base that rapidly deprotonated the ternary OH group of the substrate. In contrast, the direct deprotonation of the substrate by Glu233 was kinetically unfavorable. This mechanism suggests a novel approach for designing catalysts for deprotonation and provides clues for the development of new-generation antibiotics and herbicides.

The six steps of the complete F1-ATPase rotary catalytic cycle

F₁F_o ATP synthase interchanges phosphate transfer energy and proton motive force via a rotary catalysis mechanism. Isolated F₁-ATPase catalytic cores can hydrolyze ATP, passing through six intermediate conformational states to generate rotation of their central γ-subunit. Although previous structural studies have contributed greatly to understanding rotary catalysis in the F₁-ATPase, the structure of an important conformational state (the binding-dwell) has remained elusive. Here, we exploit temperature and time-resolved cryo-electron microscopy to determine the structure of the binding- and catalytic-dwell states of Bacillus PS3 F₁-ATPase. Each state shows three catalytic β-subunits in different conformations, establishing the complete set of six states taken up during the catalytic cycle and providing molecular details for both the ATP binding and hydrolysis strokes. We also identify a potential phosphate-release tunnel that indicates how ADP and phosphate binding are coordinated during synthesis. Overall these findings provide a structural basis for the entire F₁-ATPase catalytic cycle.

Measurement of Temperature Distribution at the Nanoscale with Luminescent Probes Based on Lanthanide Nanoparticles and Quantum Dots

It is very challenging to probe the temperature in a nanoscale because of the lack of detection technique. Temperature-sensitive luminescent probes at a nanoscale provide the possibility to solve this problem. Herein, we fabricated a model, which combined two kinds of temperature sensitive nanoprobes and gold nanoparticle heater within mesoporous silica nanoparticles. Upconverting nanoparticles and quantum dots located at different positions inside 110 nm nanoparticles reported different temperatures when the gold nanoparticles generated heat by 532 nm laser irradiation. The temperature difference between two probes with an average distance of 55 nm can reach about 30 °C. Our results prove that the temperature distribution at a nanoscale can be measured, and it will be noteworthy if a nano-heater is applied.

Comparison of CryoEM and X-ray structures of dimethylformamidase

Dimethylformamidase (DMFase) catalyzes the hydrolysis of dimethylformamide, an industrial solvent, introduced into the environment by humans. Recently, we determined the structures of dimethylformamidase by electron cryo microscopy and X-ray crystallography revealing a tetrameric enzyme with a mononuclear iron at the active site. DMFase from Paracoccus sp. isolated from a waste water treatment plant around the city of Kanpur in India shows maximal activity at 54 °C and is halotolerant. The structures determined by both techniques are mostly identical and the largest difference is in a loop near the active site. This loop could play a role in co-operativity between the monomers. A number of non-protein densities are observed in the EM map, which are modelled as water molecules. Comparison of the structures determined by the two methods reveals conserved water molecules that could play a structural role. The higher stability, unusual active site and negligible activity at low temperature makes this a very good model to study enzyme mechanism by cryoEM.

Modular microfluidics enables kinetic insight from time-resolved cryo-EM

Mechanistic understanding of biochemical reactions requires structural and kinetic characterization of the underlying chemical processes. However, no single experimental technique can provide this information in a broadly applicable manner and thus structural studies of static macromolecules are often complemented by biophysical analysis. Moreover, the common strategy of utilizing mutants or crosslinking probes to stabilize intermediates is prone to trapping off-pathway artefacts and precludes determining the order of molecular events. Here we report a time-resolved sample preparation method for cryo-electron microscopy (trEM) using a modular microfluidic device, featuring a 3D-mixing unit and variable delay lines that enables automated, fast, and blot-free sample vitrification. This approach not only preserves high-resolution structural detail but also substantially improves sample integrity and protein distribution across the vitreous ice. We validate the method by visualising reaction intermediates of early RecA filament growth across three orders of magnitude on sub-second timescales. The trEM method reported here is versatile, reproducible, and readily adaptable to a broad spectrum of fundamental questions in biology.

Advances in methods for atomic resolution macromolecular structure determination

Recent technical advances have dramatically increased the power and scope of structural biology. New developments in high-resolution cryo-electron microscopy, serial X-ray crystallography, and electron diffraction have been especially transformative. Here we highlight some of the latest advances and current challenges at the frontiers of atomic resolution methods for elucidating the structures and dynamical properties of macromolecules and their complexes.