Microdroplet Mass Spectrometry Enables Extremely Accelerated Pepsin Digestion of Proteins

Interfacial electrostatic charges promoted chemistry: Reactions and mechanisms

Interfacial electrostatic charges are a universal phenomenon in nature. In recent years, interest in the chemical reactivity of electrostatic charges has grown. Interfacial electrostatic charge-driven chemical synthesis reduces the reliance on redox reagents, catalysts, and hazardous solvents, which promotes environmental sustainability and cost-effectiveness in the chemical industry. Electrostatic charges can be generated at the interfaces between solids, liquids, and gases. The chemical properties of electrostatic charges have been observed at interfaces between solids and liquids, and between liquids and gases. This review summarized the chemical reactivity of interfacial electrostatic charges and its mechanisms. Electrostatic charges play a fundamental role in providing electrons and creating electric fields, which in turn induce charge transfer, radical formation, and molecular orientation. We classified the role of interfacial charges in chemical reactions and provided new perspectives. Interfacial electrostatic charges can be generated with mechanical energy input, a power supply and interface transition from solid-liquid to liquid-gas. Redox and catalytic reactions involving inorganic, organic compounds and biomolecules are driven by interfacial electrostatic charges. Electrostatic chemistry mechanisms are currently a subject of debate because there is insufficient experimental evidence. Challenges and opportunities associated with interfacial electrostatic chemistry are discussed. Knowledge of the reactivity of interfacial electrostatic charges could be used to understand electrostatic phenomena in nature, advance green chemistry, and even study the origins of life. We expect this emerging topic will appeal to scientists in disciplines including interfacial chemistry and electrostatics.

Acceleration of Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions at Aqueous Interfaces through Enhanced Reaction Kinetics of Microdroplets

Enzyme-catalyzed reactions have the advantages of excellent selectivity, low cost, and mild reaction conditions, but the slow reaction kinetics limit their practical applications. Herein, a microdroplet generator that can continuously and rapidly generate water microdroplets with tunable size was designed and used for the study of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction in microdroplets. Using glucose oxidase as a model and resazurin as a fluorescence probe, the fluorescence intensity of the collected microdroplets sprayed into the gas phase was 35 times higher than that in the bulk system, demonstrating obvious reaction acceleration in the microdroplets. Mechanistic studies demonstrated that local concentration enrichment and enzyme reorientation at the gas-water interfaces play key roles in the acceleration of enzymatic reactions in microdroplets. Further, the potential application of the reaction system in glucose sensing was investigated. Finally, we also studied the reaction acceleration of enzymic catalysis at the oil-water interfaces. Online measurement of the fluorescence signal of microdroplets sprayed into the mineral oil revealed a reaction acceleration factor of 6.2. It was demonstrated that aqueous microdroplets provided a green, efficient, and convenient methodology for enzyme-catalyzed reactions.

Enhanced Selectivity in Microdroplet-Mediated Enzyme Catalysis

Natural enzymes with enhanced catalytic activity and selectivity have long been studied by tuning the microenvironment around the active site, but how to modulate the active-site electric field in a simple fashion remains challenging. Here, we demonstrate that microdroplets as a simple yet versatile reactor can enhance the electric field at the active site of an enzyme. By using horseradish peroxidase as a model, improved selectivity in microdroplet-mediated enzyme catalysis can be obtained. Quantum mechanical/molecular dynamics calculations and vibrational Stark spectroscopy reveal that the electric field at the microdroplet interface can influence the electrostatic preorganization and orientation of the enzyme to enhance its internal electric field. As a result, the free energies of the substrate and heme can be tuned by the internal electric field, thereby changing its catalytic reaction pathway for a classical substrate, 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine, and enabling selective C-N additions for specific substrates. This finding provides a green, simple, and effective way to modulate enzyme-catalyzed reactions and holds promise for a broad spectrum of biosensing and biosynthesis applications.

Native top-down mass spectrometry for monitoring the rapid chymotrypsin catalyzed hydrolysis reaction

Enzymes play crucial roles in life sciences, pharmaceuticals and industries as biological catalysts that speed up biochemical reactions in living organisms. New catalytic reactions are continuously developed by enzymatic engineering to meet industrial needs, which thereby drives the development of analytical approaches for real-time reaction monitoring to reveal catalytic processes. Here, taking the hydrolase- chymotrypsin as a model system, we proposed a convenient method for monitoring catalytic processes through native top-down mass spectrometry (native TDMS). The chymotrypsin sample heterogeneity was first explored. By altering sample introduction modes and pHs, covalent and noncovalent enzymatic complexes, substrates and products can be monitored during the catalysis and further confirmed by tandem MS. Our results demonstrated that native TDMS based catalysis monitoring has distinctive strength on real-time inspection and continuous observation, making it a promising tool for characterizing more biocatalysts.

High-performance peptide and disulfide mapping by direct injection of intact proteins using on-line coupled UV-liquid chromatography microdroplet mass spectrometry (UVLC-MMS)

Microdroplet mass spectrometry (MMS), achieving ultra-fast enzyme digestion in the ionization source, holds great promises for innovating protein analysis. Here, in-depth protein characterization is demonstrated by direct injection of intact protein mixtures via on-line coupling MMS with capillary C4 liquid chromatography (LC) containing UV windows (UVLC-MMS) through an enzyme introduction tee. We showed complete sets of peptides of individual proteins (hemoglobin, bovine serum albumin, and ribonuclease A) in a mixture could be obtained in one injection. Such full (100%) sequence coverage, however, could not be achieved by conventional nanoLC-MS method using bottom-up approach with single enzyme. Moreover, direct injection of a chaperone α-crystalline (α-Cry) complex yielded identification of post-translational modifications including novel sites and semi-quantitative characterization including 3:1 stoichiometry ratio of αA- and αB-Cry sub-units and ∼1.4 phosphorylation/subunit on S45 (novel site) and S122 (main site) of αA-Cry, ∼0.7 phosphorylation/subunit on S19 (main site) and S45 of αB-Cry, as well as 100% acetylation on both N-termini of each subunits by matching the mass and retention time of the intact and its digested peptides. Furthermore, trifluoroacetic acid was able to be used in the mobile phase with UVLC-MMS to improve the separation of differentially reduced intact species and detectability of the droplet-digested products. This allowed us to completely map four disulfide linkages of ribonuclease A based on collision-induced dissociation of disulfide clusters, some of which would otherwise not be detected, preventing scrambling or shuffling errors arising from lengthy bulk solution digestion by the bottom-up approach. Integration of UVLC and MMS greatly improves droplet digestion efficiency and MS detection, enabling highly efficient workflow for in-depth and accurate protein characterization.

Real-time bottom-up characterization of protein mixtures enabled by online microdroplet-assisted enzymatic digestion (MAED)

Enzymatic digestion remains one of the "rate-determining steps" in the bottom-up analysis of proteins. However, by performing digestion in microdroplets generated from electrosonic spray, the reaction could be accelerated to a timescale lower than milliseconds. Here, we describe a simple and rapid online digestion platform named online microdroplet-assisted enzymatic digestion (MAED). It involves the integration of intact protein separation with enzymatic digestion in microdroplets. Via online MAED, various protein standards, including an antibody standard, were characterized in a bottom-up manner without prior digestion, and high sequence coverages were obtained. We further extended the application of online MAED to a more complex sample, mouse brain extract, where protein identifications were successfully yielded. Compared with the conventional bottom-up approach, a more comprehensive characterization could be obtained particularly for low molecular weight proteins. In short, we provide a rapid and alternative bottom-up analysis in a top-down fashion as well as a new possibility for microdroplet chemistry.

Variable Mixing with Theta Emitter Mass Spectrometry: Changing Solution Flow Rates with Emitter Position

Two solutions can be rapidly mixed using theta glass emitters, with products measured using electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. The relative flow rates of the two emitter channels can be measured using different calibration compounds in each channel, or the flow rates are often assumed to be the same. The relative flow rates of each channel can be essentially the same when the emitters are positioned directly in front of the capillary entrance of a mass spectrometer, but the relative flow rates can be varied by up to 3 orders of magnitude by moving the position of the emitter tip ±1 cm in a direction that is perpendicular to the inner divider. Results of the emitter position on the different concentrations of reagents in the initially formed electrospray droplets are demonstrated through protein denaturation using a supercharging reagent as well as two different bimolecular reactions. The average charge state of myoglobin changed from +7.8 to +13.8 when 2.5% sulfolane was mixed with a 200 mM ammonium acetate solution containing the protein when the position of the emitter was scanned in front of the mass spectrometer inlet. The conversion ratio of a bimolecular reaction was changed from 0.98 to 0.04 with varying emitter positions. These results show that the relative flow rates must be carefully monitored because the droplet composition depends strongly on the position of the theta glass emitters. This method can be used to measure the dependence of reaction kinetics on different solution concentrations by using a single emitter and only two solutions.

Rapid Characterization of Antibodies via Automated Flow Injection Coupled with Online Microdroplet Reactions and Native-pH Mass Spectrometry

Microdroplet reactions have aroused much interest due to significant reaction acceleration (e.g., ultrafast protein digestion in microdroplets could occur in less than 1 ms). This study integrated a microdroplet protein digestion technique with automated sample flow injection and online mass spectrometry (MS) analysis, to develop a rapid and robust method for structural characterization of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) that is essential to assess the antibody drug's safety and quality. Automated sequential aspiration and mixing of an antibody and an enzyme (IdeS or IgdE) enabled rapid analysis with high reproducibility (total analysis time: 2 min per sample; reproducibility: ∼2% coefficient of variation). Spraying the sample in ammonium acetate buffer (pH 7) using a jet stream source allowed efficient digestion of antibodies and efficient ionization of resulting antibody subunits under native-pH conditions. Importantly, it also provided a platform to directly study specific binding of an antibody and an antigen (e.g., detecting the complexes mAb/RSFV antigen and F(ab')2/RSVF in this study). Furthermore, subsequent tandem MS analysis of a resulting subunit from microdroplet digestion enabled localizing post-translational modifications on particular domains of a mAb in a rapid fashion. In combination with IdeS digestion of an antibody, additional tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine (TCEP) reduction and N-glycosidase F (PNGase F) deglycosylation reactions that facilitate antibody analysis could be realized in "one-pot" spraying. Interestingly, increased deglycosylation yield in microdroplets was found, simply by raising the sample temperature. We expect that our method would have a high impact for rapid characterization of monoclonal antibodies.

Online Cross-Linking of Peptides and Proteins during Contained-Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry

Recent advancements in mass spectrometry (MS) now enable all levels of protein structures to be characterized, including primary protein sequence, post-translational modifications, and three-dimensional protein conformations. However, protein conformational studies by MS require the use of many separate techniques that are performed independently of each other. Herein, we described a contained-electrospray (ES) experiment that has potential to integrate peptide/protein cross-linking with the general MS workflow. In our experiment, cross-linking of protein/peptide occurs simultaneously with ionization after analytes, and cross-linkers are sprayed from two separate ES emitters. The online cross-linking process occurring in the charged microdroplet environment was optimized using trilysine peptide and bis(sulfosuccinimidyl)suberate cross-linker. We detected the electrostatic complex between analyte and cross-linker, the mono-linked intermediate, and the fully cross-linked product, allowing us to correctly predict the sequence of reaction events in the cross-linking process. Importantly, we observed that the terminal fully cross-linked product is composed of two distinct conformations. In one form, the product involved cross-linking between two ε-NH₂ amines in lysine residues, while the other conformer was formed by a reaction between one ε-NH₂ amine and the N-terminus. The experimental conditions for selecting one cross-linked species over others during the online ES ionization-MS analysis have been detailed. Appropriate parameters enabled the reaction between α-lactalbumin proteins and cross-linkers using a non-denaturing spray condition. These results establish a framework for a future development in high-throughput structural MS method, where all levels of protein information can be gathered in a single experiment.

Investigation of Tryptic Protein Digestion in Microdroplets and in Bulk Solution

Recent studies have shown that ultrafast enzymatic digestion of proteins can be achieved in microdroplet within 250 μs. Further investigation of peptides resulting from microdroplet digestion (MD) would be necessary to evaluate it as an alternative to the conventional bulk digestion for bottom-up and biotherapeutic protein characterization. Herein we examined and compared protein tryptic digestion in both MD and bulk solution. In the case of MD of β-lactoglobulin B, the preservation of long peptides was observed due to the short digestion time. In addition, MD is applicable to digest both high- and low-abundance proteins in mixture. In the case of digesting NIST 8671 mAb antibody containing a low level of commonly encountered host cell protein (HCP) PLBL2 (mAb:PLBL2 = 100:1 by weight), MD produced lower levels of digestion-induced chemical modifications of asparagine/glutamine deamidation, compared with overnight digestion. No significant difference between MD and bulk digestion was observed in terms of trypsin digestion specificity based on examination of semi- and unspecific-cleaved peptides. Our study suggests that MD, a fast digestion approach, could be adopted for bottom-up proteomics research and for peptide mapping of mAbs to characterize site-specific deamidation and glycosylation, for the purpose of development of biopharmaceuticals.