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Lee TCH, Lai KKY, Xu SJL, Lee FWF. Upregulation of Peridinin-Chlorophyll A-Binding Protein in a Toxic Strain of Prorocentrum hoffmannianum under Normal and Phosphate-Depleted Conditions. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24021735. [PMID: 36675250 PMCID: PMC9864435 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24021735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2022] [Revised: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Some strains of the dinoflagellate species Prorocentrum hoffmannianum show contrasting ability to produce diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) toxins. We previously compared the okadaic acid (OA) production level between a highly toxic strain (CCMP2804) and a non-toxic strain (CCMP683) of P. hoffmannianum and revealed that the cellular concentration of OA in CCMP2804 would increase significantly under the depletion of phosphate. To understand the molecular mechanisms, here, we compared and analyzed the proteome changes of both strains growing under normal condition and at phosphate depletion using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE). There were 41 and 33 differential protein spots observed under normal condition and phosphate depletion, respectively, of which most were upregulated in CCMP2804 and 22 were common to both conditions. Due to the lack of matched peptide mass fingerprints in the database, de novo peptide sequencing was applied to identify the differentially expressed proteins. Of those upregulated spots in CCMP2804, nearly 60% were identified as peridinin-chlorophyll a-binding protein (PCP), an important light-harvesting protein for photosynthesis in dinoflagellates. We postulated that the high expression of PCP encourages the production of DSP toxins by enhancing the yields of raw materials such as acetate, glycolate and glycine. Other possible mechanisms of toxicity related to PCP might be through triggering the transcription of non-ribosomal peptide synthetase/polyketide synthase genes and the transportation of dinophysistoxin-4 from chloroplast to vacuoles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Chun-Hung Lee
- School of Science and Technology, Hong Kong Metropolitan University, Hong Kong, China
| | - Kaze King-Yip Lai
- School of Science and Technology, Hong Kong Metropolitan University, Hong Kong, China
| | - Steven Jing-Liang Xu
- School of Science and Technology, Hong Kong Metropolitan University, Hong Kong, China
| | - Fred Wang-Fat Lee
- School of Science and Technology, Hong Kong Metropolitan University, Hong Kong, China
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +852-31202690
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Dinoflagellate Phosphopantetheinyl Transferase (PPTase) and Thiolation Domain Interactions Characterized Using a Modified Indigoidine Synthesizing Reporter. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10040687. [PMID: 35456738 PMCID: PMC9027781 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10040687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2022] [Revised: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Photosynthetic dinoflagellates synthesize many toxic but also potential therapeutic compounds therapeutics via polyketide/non-ribosomal peptide synthesis, a common means of producing natural products in bacteria and fungi. Although canonical genes are identifiable in dinoflagellate transcriptomes, the biosynthetic pathways are obfuscated by high copy numbers and fractured synteny. This study focuses on the carrier domains that scaffold natural product synthesis (thiolation domains) and the phosphopantetheinyl transferases (PPTases) that thiolate these carriers. We replaced the thiolation domain of the indigoidine producing BpsA gene from Streptomyces lavendulae with those of three multidomain dinoflagellate transcripts and coexpressed these constructs with each of three dinoflagellate PPTases looking for specific pairings that would identify distinct pathways. Surprisingly, all three PPTases were able to activate all the thiolation domains from one transcript, although with differing levels of indigoidine produced, demonstrating an unusual lack of specificity. Unfortunately, constructs with the remaining thiolation domains produced almost no indigoidine and the thiolation domain for lipid synthesis could not be expressed in E. coli. These results combined with inconsistent protein expression for different PPTase/thiolation domain pairings present technical hurdles for future work. Despite these challenges, expression of catalytically active dinoflagellate proteins in E. coli is a novel and useful tool going forward.
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Williams EP, Bachvaroff TR, Place AR. A Global Approach to Estimating the Abundance and Duplication of Polyketide Synthase Domains in Dinoflagellates. Evol Bioinform Online 2021; 17:11769343211031871. [PMID: 34345159 PMCID: PMC8283056 DOI: 10.1177/11769343211031871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Many dinoflagellate species make toxins in a myriad of different molecular configurations but the underlying chemistry in all cases is presumably via modular synthases, primarily polyketide synthases. In many organisms modular synthases occur as discrete synthetic genes or domains within a gene that act in coordination thus forming a module that produces a particular fragment of a natural product. The modules usually occur in tandem as gene clusters with a syntenic arrangement that is often predictive of the resultant structure. Dinoflagellate genomes however are notoriously complex with individual genes present in many tandem repeats and very few synthetic modules occurring as gene clusters, unlike what has been seen in bacteria and fungi. However, modular synthesis in all organisms requires a free thiol group that acts as a carrier for sequential synthesis called a thiolation domain. We scanned 47 dinoflagellate transcriptomes for 23 modular synthase domain models and compared their abundance among 10 orders of dinoflagellates as well as their co-occurrence with thiolation domains. The total count of domain types was quite large with over thirty-thousand identified, 29 000 of which were in the core dinoflagellates. Although there were no specific trends in domain abundance associated with types of toxins, there were readily observable lineage specific differences. The Gymnodiniales, makers of long polyketide toxins such as brevetoxin and karlotoxin had a high relative abundance of thiolation domains as well as multiple thiolation domains within a single transcript. Orders such as the Gonyaulacales, makers of small polyketides such as spirolides, had fewer thiolation domains but a relative increase in the number of acyl transferases. Unique to the core dinoflagellates, however, were thiolation domains occurring alongside tetratricopeptide repeats that facilitate protein-protein interactions, especially hexa and hepta-repeats, that may explain the scaffolding required for synthetic complexes capable of making large toxins. Clustering analysis for each type of domain was also used to discern possible origins of duplication for the multitude of single domain transcripts. Single domain transcripts frequently clustered with synonymous domains from multi-domain transcripts such as the BurA and ZmaK like genes as well as the multi-ketosynthase genes, sometimes with a large degree of apparent gene duplication, while fatty acid synthesis genes formed distinct clusters. Surprisingly the acyl-transferases and ketoreductases involved in fatty acid synthesis (FabD and FabG, respectively) were found in very large clusters indicating an unprecedented degree of gene duplication for these genes. These results demonstrate a complex evolutionary history of core dinoflagellate modular synthases with domain specific duplications throughout the lineage as well as clues to how large protein complexes can be assembled to synthesize the largest natural products known.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ernest P Williams
- Institute of Marine and Environmental Technologies, University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Tsvetan R Bachvaroff
- Institute of Marine and Environmental Technologies, University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Allen R Place
- Institute of Marine and Environmental Technologies, University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, Baltimore, MD, USA
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4
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Wan X, Yao G, Liu Y, Chen J, Jiang H. Research Progress in the Biosynthetic Mechanisms of Marine Polyether Toxins. Mar Drugs 2019; 17:E594. [PMID: 31652489 PMCID: PMC6835853 DOI: 10.3390/md17100594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2019] [Revised: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 10/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Marine polyether toxins, mainly produced by marine dinoflagellates, are novel, complex, and diverse natural products with extensive toxicological and pharmacological effects. Owing to their harmful effects during outbreaks of marine red tides, as well as their potential value for the development of new drugs, marine polyether toxins have been extensively studied, in terms of toxicology, pharmacology, detection, and analysis, structural identification, as well as their biosynthetic mechanisms. Although the biosynthetic mechanisms of marine polyether toxins are still unclear, certain progress has been made. In this review, research progress and current knowledge on the biosynthetic mechanisms of polyether toxins are summarized, including the mechanisms of carbon skeleton deletion, pendant alkylation, and polyether ring formation, along with providing a summary of mined biosynthesis-related genes. Finally, future research directions and applications of marine polyether toxins are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiukun Wan
- State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China.
| | - Ge Yao
- State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China.
| | - Yanli Liu
- State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China.
| | - Jisheng Chen
- State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China.
| | - Hui Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of NBC Protection for Civilian, Beijing 102205, China.
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5
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Morse D, Tse SPK, Lo SCL. Exploring dinoflagellate biology with high-throughput proteomics. HARMFUL ALGAE 2018; 75:16-26. [PMID: 29778222 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2018.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2017] [Revised: 03/27/2018] [Accepted: 03/28/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Dinoflagellates are notorious for their ability to form the harmful algal blooms known as "red tides," yet the mechanisms underlying bloom formation remain poorly understood. Despite recent advances in nucleic acid sequencing, which have generated transcriptomes from a wide range of species exposed to a variety of different conditions, measuring changes in RNA levels have not generally produced great insight into dinoflagellate cell biology or environmental physiology, nor do we have a thorough grasp on the molecular events underpinning bloom formation. Not only is the transcriptomic response of dinoflagellates to environmental change generally muted, but there is a markedly low degree of congruency between mRNA expression and protein expression in dinoflagellates. Herein we discuss the application of high-throughput proteomics to the study of dinoflagellate biology. By profiling the cellular protein complement (the proteome) instead of mRNA (the transcriptome), the biomolecular events that underlie the changes of phenotypes can be more readily evaluated, as proteins directly determine the structure and the function of the cell. Recent advances in proteomics have seen this technique become a high-throughput method that is now able to provide a perspective different from the more commonly employed nucleic acid sequencing. We suggest that the time is ripe to exploit these new technologies in addressing the many mysteries of dinoflagellate biology, such as how the symbiotic dinoflagellate inhabiting reef corals acclimate to increases in temperature, as well as how harmful algal blooms are initiated at the sub-cellular level. Furthermore, as dinoflagellates are not the only eukaryotes that demonstrate muted transcriptional responses, the techniques addressed within this review are amenable to a wide array of organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Morse
- Institut de Recherche en biologie Végétale, Département de Sciences Biologiques, Université de Montréal, Canada.
| | - Sirius P K Tse
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Food Biological Safety Control, Department of Applied Biology and Chemical Technology, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
| | - Samuel C L Lo
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Food Biological Safety Control, Department of Applied Biology and Chemical Technology, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong
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6
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Hu T, LeBlanc P, Burton IW, Walter JA, McCarron P, Melanson JE, Strangman WK, Wright JLC. Sulfated diesters of okadaic acid and DTX-1: Self-protective precursors of diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) toxins. HARMFUL ALGAE 2017; 63:85-93. [PMID: 28366404 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2017.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2016] [Revised: 01/30/2017] [Accepted: 01/31/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Many toxic secondary metabolites used for defense are also toxic to the producing organism. One important way to circumvent toxicity is to store the toxin as an inactive precursor. Several sulfated diesters of the diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) toxin okadaic acid have been reported from cultures of various dinoflagellate species belonging to the genus Prorocentrum. It has been proposed that these sulfated diesters are a means of toxin storage within the dinoflagellate cell, and that a putative enzyme mediated two-step hydrolysis of sulfated diesters such as DTX-4 and DTX-5 initially leads to the formation of diol esters and ultimately to the release of free okadaic acid. However, only one diol ester and no sulfated diesters of DTX-1, a closely related DSP toxin, have been isolated leading some to speculate that this toxin is not stored as a sulfated diester and is processed by some other means. DSP components in organic extracts of two large scale Prorocentrum lima laboratory cultures have been investigated. In addition to the usual suite of okadaic acid esters, as well as the free acids okadaic acid and DTX-1, a group of corresponding diol- and sulfated diesters of both okadaic acid and DTX-1 have now been isolated and structurally characterized, confirming that both okadaic acid and DTX-1 are initially formed in the dinoflagellate cell as the non-toxic sulfated diesters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingmo Hu
- Institute for Marine Biosciences, National Research Council of Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, NS B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Patricia LeBlanc
- Institute for Marine Biosciences, National Research Council of Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, NS B3H 3Z1, Canada; Measurement Science and Standards, National Research Council of Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, NS B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Ian W Burton
- Institute for Marine Biosciences, National Research Council of Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, NS B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - John A Walter
- Institute for Marine Biosciences, National Research Council of Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, NS B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Pearse McCarron
- Measurement Science and Standards, National Research Council of Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, NS B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Jeremy E Melanson
- Institute for Marine Biosciences, National Research Council of Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, NS B3H 3Z1, Canada; Measurement Science and Standards, National Research Council of Canada, 1200 Montreal Road, Ottawa, ON K1A 0R6, Canada
| | - Wendy K Strangman
- UNC Wilmington Center for Marine Science, Marvin K. Moss Lane, Wilmington, NC 28409, United States
| | - Jeffrey L C Wright
- Institute for Marine Biosciences, National Research Council of Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, NS B3H 3Z1, Canada; UNC Wilmington Center for Marine Science, Marvin K. Moss Lane, Wilmington, NC 28409, United States.
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7
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Al Muftah A, Selwood AI, Foss AJ, Al-Jabri HMS, Potts M, Yilmaz M. Algal toxins and producers in the marine waters of Qatar, Arabian Gulf. Toxicon 2016; 122:54-66. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2016] [Revised: 09/18/2016] [Accepted: 09/20/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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8
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The Mechanism of Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning Toxin Production in Prorocentrum spp.: Physiological and Molecular Perspectives. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:toxins8100272. [PMID: 27669302 PMCID: PMC5086633 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8100272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2016] [Revised: 08/10/2016] [Accepted: 09/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) is a gastrointestinal disorder caused by the consumption of seafood contaminated with okadaic acid (OA) and dinophysistoxins (DTXs). OA and DTXs are potent inhibitors of protein phosphatases 2A, 1B, and 2B, which may promote cancer in the human digestive system. Their expression in dinoflagellates is strongly affected by nutritional and environmental factors. Studies have indicated that the level of these biotoxins is inversely associated with the growth of dinoflagellates at low concentrations of nitrogen or phosphorus, or at extreme temperature. However, the presence of leucine or glycerophosphate enhances both growth and cellular toxin level. Moreover, the presence of ammonia and incubation in continuous darkness do not favor the toxin production. Currently, studies on the mechanism of this biotoxin production are scant. Full genome sequencing of dinoflagellates is challenging because of the massive genomic size; however, current advanced molecular and omics technologies may provide valuable insight into the biotoxin production mechanism and novel research perspectives on microalgae. This review presents a comprehensive analysis on the effects of various nutritional and physical factors on the OA and DTX production in the DSP toxin-producing Prorocentrum spp. Moreover, the applications of the current molecular technologies in the study on the mechanism of DSP toxin production are discussed.
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9
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Anttila M, Strangman W, York R, Tomas C, Wright JLC. Biosynthetic Studies of 13-Desmethylspirolide C Produced by Alexandrium ostenfeldii (= A. peruvianum): Rationalization of the Biosynthetic Pathway Following Incorporation of (13)C-Labeled Methionine and Application of the Odd-Even Rule of Methylation. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2016; 79:484-489. [PMID: 26641306 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.5b00869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the biosynthesis of dinoflagellate polyketides presents many unique challenges. Because of the remaining hurdles to dinoflagellate genome sequencing, precursor labeling studies remain the only viable way to investigate dinoflagellate biosynthesis. However, prior studies have shown that polyketide chain assembly does not follow any of the established processes. Additionally, acetate, the common precursor for polyketides, is frequently scrambled, thus compromising interpretation. These factors are further compounded by low production yields of the compounds of interest. A recent report on the biosynthesis of spirolides, a group belonging to the growing class of toxic spiroimines, provided some insight into the polyketide assembly process based on acetate labeling studies, but many details were left uncertain. By feeding (13)C methyl-labeled methionine to cultures of Alexandrium ostenfeldii, the producing organism of 13-desmethylspirolide C, and application of the odd-even methylation rule, the complete biosynthetic pathway has been established.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Anttila
- UNCW Center for Marine Science , 5600 Marvin K. Moss Lane, Wilmington, North Carolina 28409, United States
| | - Wendy Strangman
- UNCW Center for Marine Science , 5600 Marvin K. Moss Lane, Wilmington, North Carolina 28409, United States
| | - Robert York
- UNCW Center for Marine Science , 5600 Marvin K. Moss Lane, Wilmington, North Carolina 28409, United States
| | - Carmelo Tomas
- UNCW Center for Marine Science , 5600 Marvin K. Moss Lane, Wilmington, North Carolina 28409, United States
| | - Jeffrey L C Wright
- UNCW Center for Marine Science , 5600 Marvin K. Moss Lane, Wilmington, North Carolina 28409, United States
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10
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Ferreira ELF, Williams DE, Ióca LP, Morais-Urano RP, Santos MFC, Patrick BO, Elias LM, Lira SP, Ferreira AG, Passarini MRZ, Sette LD, Andersen RJ, Berlinck RGS. Structure and Biogenesis of Roussoellatide, a Dichlorinated Polyketide from the Marine-Derived Fungus Roussoella sp. DLM33. Org Lett 2015; 17:5152-5. [PMID: 26444492 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.5b02060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The structure of the fungal metabolite roussoellatide (1) has been established by spectroscopic and X-ray diffraction analyses. Results from feeding experiments with [1-(13)C]acetate, [2-(13)C]acetate, and [1,2-(13)C]acetate were consistent with a biosynthetic pathway to the unprecedented skeleton of 1 involving Favorskii rearrangements in separate pentaketides, subsequently joined via an intermolecular Diels-Alder reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Everton L F Ferreira
- Instituto de Química de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo , CP 780, CEP 13560-970, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - David E Williams
- Departments of Chemistry and Earth, Ocean & Atmospheric Sciences, University of British Columbia , Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Laura P Ióca
- Instituto de Química de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo , CP 780, CEP 13560-970, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Raquel P Morais-Urano
- Instituto de Química de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo , CP 780, CEP 13560-970, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Mario F C Santos
- Instituto de Química de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo , CP 780, CEP 13560-970, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Brian O Patrick
- Departments of Chemistry and Earth, Ocean & Atmospheric Sciences, University of British Columbia , Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Luciana M Elias
- Departamento de Ciências Exatas, Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz, Universidade de São Paulo , CP 9, Agronomia, CEP 13418-900, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil
| | - Simone P Lira
- Departamento de Ciências Exatas, Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz, Universidade de São Paulo , CP 9, Agronomia, CEP 13418-900, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil
| | - Antonio G Ferreira
- Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de São Carlos , 13565-905, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Michel R Z Passarini
- Divisão de Recursos Microbianos, Centro Pluridisciplinar de Pesquisas Químicas, Biológicas e Agrícolas, Universidade Estadual de Campinas , CEP 13140-000, Paulínia, SP, Brazil
| | - Lara D Sette
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Microbiologia, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade Estadual Paulista "Júlio de Mesquita Filho" , 1515, Rio Claro, SP, Brazil
| | - Raymond J Andersen
- Departments of Chemistry and Earth, Ocean & Atmospheric Sciences, University of British Columbia , Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Roberto G S Berlinck
- Instituto de Química de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo , CP 780, CEP 13560-970, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
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11
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Tsakos M, Schaffert ES, Clement LL, Villadsen NL, Poulsen TB. Ester coupling reactions – an enduring challenge in the chemical synthesis of bioactive natural products. Nat Prod Rep 2015; 32:605-32. [DOI: 10.1039/c4np00106k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
In this review we investigate the use of complex ester fragment couplings within natural product total syntheses. Using examples from the literature up to 2014 we illustrate the state-of-the-art as well as the challenges within this area of organic synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michail Tsakos
- Chemical Biology Laboratory
- Department of Chemistry
- Aarhus University
- Aarhus C
- Denmark
| | - Eva S. Schaffert
- Chemical Biology Laboratory
- Department of Chemistry
- Aarhus University
- Aarhus C
- Denmark
| | - Lise L. Clement
- Chemical Biology Laboratory
- Department of Chemistry
- Aarhus University
- Aarhus C
- Denmark
| | - Nikolaj L. Villadsen
- Chemical Biology Laboratory
- Department of Chemistry
- Aarhus University
- Aarhus C
- Denmark
| | - Thomas B. Poulsen
- Chemical Biology Laboratory
- Department of Chemistry
- Aarhus University
- Aarhus C
- Denmark
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12
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Van Wagoner RM, Satake M, Wright JLC. Polyketide biosynthesis in dinoflagellates: what makes it different? Nat Prod Rep 2014; 31:1101-37. [DOI: 10.1039/c4np00016a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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13
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Vilches TS, Norte M, Daranas AH, Fernández JJ. Biosynthetic studies on water-soluble derivative 5c (DTX5c). Mar Drugs 2012; 10:2234-2245. [PMID: 23170080 PMCID: PMC3497019 DOI: 10.3390/md10102234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2012] [Revised: 09/18/2012] [Accepted: 09/20/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The dinoflagellate Prorocentrum belizeanum is responsible for the production of several toxins involved in the red tide phenomenon known as Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP). In this paper we report on the biosynthetic origin of an okadaic acid water-soluble ester derivative, DTX5c, on the basis of the spectroscopical analysis of ¹³C enriched samples obtained by addition of labelled sodium [l-¹³C], [2-¹³C] acetate to artificial cultures of this dinoflagellate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamara S. Vilches
- University Institute for Bio-Organic Chemistry “Antonio González”, University of La Laguna, Av. Astrofísico Francisco Sánchez 2, La Laguna 38206, Spain; (T.S.V.); (M.N.)
| | - Manuel Norte
- University Institute for Bio-Organic Chemistry “Antonio González”, University of La Laguna, Av. Astrofísico Francisco Sánchez 2, La Laguna 38206, Spain; (T.S.V.); (M.N.)
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of La Laguna, Av. Astrofísico Francisco Sánchez s/n, La Laguna 38206, Spain
| | - Antonio Hernández Daranas
- University Institute for Bio-Organic Chemistry “Antonio González”, University of La Laguna, Av. Astrofísico Francisco Sánchez 2, La Laguna 38206, Spain; (T.S.V.); (M.N.)
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of La Laguna, Av. Astrofísico Francisco Sánchez s/n, La Laguna 38206, Spain
| | - José J. Fernández
- University Institute for Bio-Organic Chemistry “Antonio González”, University of La Laguna, Av. Astrofísico Francisco Sánchez 2, La Laguna 38206, Spain; (T.S.V.); (M.N.)
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of La Laguna, Av. Astrofísico Francisco Sánchez s/n, La Laguna 38206, Spain
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14
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Gallardo-Rodríguez J, Sánchez-Mirón A, García-Camacho F, López-Rosales L, Chisti Y, Molina-Grima E. Bioactives from microalgal dinoflagellates. Biotechnol Adv 2012; 30:1673-84. [PMID: 22884890 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2012.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2012] [Revised: 07/27/2012] [Accepted: 07/29/2012] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Dinoflagellate microalgae are an important source of marine biotoxins. Bioactives from dinoflagellates are attracting increasing attention because of their impact on the safety of seafood and potential uses in biomedical, toxicological and pharmacological research. Here we review the potential applications of dinoflagellate toxins and the methods for producing them. Only sparing quantities of dinoflagellate toxins are generally available and this hinders bioactivity characterization and evaluation in possible applications. Approaches to production of increased quantities of dinoflagellate bioactives are discussed. Although many dinoflagellates are fragile and grow slowly, controlled culture in bioreactors appears to be generally suitable for producing many of the metabolites of interest.
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15
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Sasso S, Pohnert G, Lohr M, Mittag M, Hertweck C. Microalgae in the postgenomic era: a blooming reservoir for new natural products. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2012; 36:761-85. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2011.00304.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2011] [Accepted: 08/29/2011] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
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16
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Kalaitzis JA, Chau R, Kohli GS, Murray SA, Neilan BA. Biosynthesis of toxic naturally-occurring seafood contaminants. Toxicon 2010; 56:244-58. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2008] [Revised: 08/20/2009] [Accepted: 09/07/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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17
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Kellmann R, Stüken A, Orr RJS, Svendsen HM, Jakobsen KS. Biosynthesis and molecular genetics of polyketides in marine dinoflagellates. Mar Drugs 2010; 8:1011-48. [PMID: 20479965 PMCID: PMC2866473 DOI: 10.3390/md8041011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2010] [Revised: 03/17/2010] [Accepted: 03/26/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Marine dinoflagellates are the single most important group of algae that produce toxins, which have a global impact on human activities. The toxins are chemically diverse, and include macrolides, cyclic polyethers, spirolides and purine alkaloids. Whereas there is a multitude of studies describing the pharmacology of these toxins, there is limited or no knowledge regarding the biochemistry and molecular genetics involved in their biosynthesis. Recently, however, exciting advances have been made. Expressed sequence tag sequencing studies have revealed important insights into the transcriptomes of dinoflagellates, whereas other studies have implicated polyketide synthase genes in the biosynthesis of cyclic polyether toxins, and the molecular genetic basis for the biosynthesis of paralytic shellfish toxins has been elucidated in cyanobacteria. This review summarises the recent progress that has been made regarding the unusual genomes of dinoflagellates, the biosynthesis and molecular genetics of dinoflagellate toxins. In addition, the evolution of these metabolic pathways will be discussed, and an outlook for future research and possible applications is provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ralf Kellmann
- University of Bergen, Department of Molecular Biology, 5020 Bergen, Norway; E-Mail:
| | - Anke Stüken
- University of Oslo, Department of Biology, Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), 0316 Oslo, Norway; E-Mails:
(A.S.);
(K.S.J.)
- University of Oslo, Department of Biology, Microbial Evolution Research Group (MERG), 0316 Oslo, Norway; E-Mail:
| | - Russell J. S. Orr
- University of Oslo, Department of Biology, Microbial Evolution Research Group (MERG), 0316 Oslo, Norway; E-Mail:
| | - Helene M. Svendsen
- University of Bergen, Department of Molecular Biology, 5020 Bergen, Norway; E-Mail:
| | - Kjetill S. Jakobsen
- University of Oslo, Department of Biology, Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis (CEES), 0316 Oslo, Norway; E-Mails:
(A.S.);
(K.S.J.)
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18
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Meng Y, Van Wagoner RM, Misner I, Tomas C, Wright JLC. Structure and biosynthesis of amphidinol 17, a hemolytic compound from Amphidinium carterae. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2010; 73:409-415. [PMID: 20108948 DOI: 10.1021/np900616q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Amphidinol 17 (AM17; 1), a novel amphidinol, has been isolated from a Bahamas strain of Amphidinium carterae. This new congener contains the signature hairpin region and a Delta(6) polyene arm, whereas the polyol arm is distinct from those of other amphidinols. The pattern of acetate incorporation in 1 was directly determined by feeding a single labeled substrate, [2-(13)C]acetate. While the highly conserved regions within the amphidinol family of AM17 have exhibited identical occurrences of cleaved acetates to other amphidinols for which the biosynthesis has been explored, the polyol arm for AM17 displays a higher degree of nascent chain processing that shows similarities to amphidinolide biosynthesis. AM17 exhibited an EC(50) of 4.9 microM in a hemolytic assay using human red blood cells but displayed no detectable antifungal activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanhui Meng
- Center for Marine Science, University of North Carolina Wilmington, Wilmington, North Carolina 28409, USA
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19
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López-Legentil S, Song B, DeTure M, Baden DG. Characterization and localization of a hybrid non-ribosomal peptide synthetase and polyketide synthase gene from the toxic dinoflagellate Karenia brevis. MARINE BIOTECHNOLOGY (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2010; 12:32-41. [PMID: 19468793 DOI: 10.1007/s10126-009-9197-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2009] [Accepted: 04/21/2009] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The toxic dinoflagellate Karenia brevis, a causative agent of the red tides in Florida, produces a series of toxic compounds known as brevetoxins and their derivatives. Recently, several putative genes encoding polyketide synthase (PKS) were identified from K. brevis in an effort to elucidate the genetic systems involved in brevetoxin production. In this study, novel PKS sequences were isolated from three clones of K. brevis. Eighteen unique sequences were obtained for the PKS ketosynthase (KS) domain of K. brevis. Phylogenetic comparison with closely related PKS genes revealed that 16 grouped with cyanobacteria sequences, while the remaining two grouped with Apicomplexa and previously reported sequences for K. brevis. A fosmid library was also constructed to further characterize PKS genes detected in K. brevis Wilson clone. Several fosmid clones were positive for the presence of PKS genes, and one was fully sequenced to determine the full structure of the PKS cluster. A hybrid non ribosomal peptide synthetase and PKS (NRPS-PKS) gene cluster of 16,061 bp was isolated. In addition, we assessed whether the isolated gene was being actively expressed using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and determined its localization at the cellular level by chloroplast isolation. RT-PCR analyses revealed that this gene was actively expressed in K. brevis cultures. The hybrid NRPS-PKS gene cluster was located in the chloroplast, suggesting that K. brevis acquired the ability to produce some of its secondary metabolites through endosymbiosis with ancestral cyanobacteria. Further work is needed to determine the compound produced by the NRPS-PKS hybrid, to find other PKS gene sequences, and to assess their role in K. brevis toxin biosynthetic pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanna López-Legentil
- Center for Marine Science, University of North Carolina Wilmington, 5600 Marvin K. Moss Lane, Wilmington, NC 28409, USA.
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20
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Satake M, Bourdelais AJ, Van Wagoner RM, Baden DG, Wright JLC. Brevisamide: an unprecedented monocyclic ether alkaloid from the dinoflagellate Karenia brevis that provides a potential model for ladder-frame initiation. Org Lett 2008; 10:3465-8. [PMID: 18646771 DOI: 10.1021/ol801243n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The dinoflagellate Karenia brevis is known for the production of brevetoxins, a family of polycyclic ether toxins, as well as their antagonist brevenal. Further examination of organic extracts of K. brevis has uncovered yet another unprecedented cyclic ether alkaloid named brevisamide. This report describes the structure elucidation of brevisamide based on detailed MS and NMR spectral analysis, and the importance of this new compound in shedding light on the biogenesis of fused polyethers is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masayuki Satake
- Center for Marine Science, University of North Carolina, Wilmington, 5600 Marvin K. Moss Lane, Wilmington, North Carolina 28409, USA
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21
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Perez R, Liu L, Lopez J, An T, Rein KS. Diverse bacterial PKS sequences derived from okadaic acid-producing dinoflagellates. Mar Drugs 2008; 6:164-79. [PMID: 18728765 PMCID: PMC2525486 DOI: 10.3390/md20080009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2008] [Revised: 05/09/2008] [Accepted: 05/13/2008] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Okadaic acid (OA) and the related dinophysistoxins are isolated from dinoflagellates of the genus Prorocentrum and Dinophysis. Bacteria of the Roseobacter group have been associated with okadaic acid producing dinoflagellates and have been previously implicated in OA production. Analysis of 16S rRNA libraries reveals that Roseobacter are the most abundant bacteria associated with OA producing dinoflagellates of the genus Prorocentrum and are not found in association with non-toxic dinoflagellates. While some polyketide synthase (PKS) genes form a highly supported Prorocentrum clade, most appear to be bacterial, but unrelated to Roseobacter or Alpha-Proteobacterial PKSs or those derived from other Alveolates Karenia brevis or Crytosporidium parvum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Perez
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199, USA.
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22
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Diverse Bacterial PKS Sequences Derived From Okadaic Acid-Producing Dinoflagellates. Mar Drugs 2008. [DOI: 10.3390/md6020164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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23
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Larsen K, Petersen D, Wilkins AL, Samdal IA, Sandvik M, Rundberget T, Goldstone D, Arcus V, Hovgaard P, Rise F, Rehmann N, Hess P, Miles CO. Clarification of the C-35 stereochemistries of dinophysistoxin-1 and dinophysistoxin-2 and its consequences for binding to protein phosphatase. Chem Res Toxicol 2007; 20:868-75. [PMID: 17455957 DOI: 10.1021/tx700016m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Okadaic acid analogues are well known as protein phosphatase inhibitors and occur naturally in marine shellfish feeding on dinoflagellates of the genus Dinophysis, leading to diarrhetic shellfish poisoning of shellfish consumers. Knowledge of the correct structures for these toxins is important in understanding their toxicology, biochemistry, and biosynthesis. We have performed extensive NMR analyses on okadaic acid (1), dinophysistoxin-1 (DTX-1), and dinophysistoxin-2 (DTX-2) obtained from natural sources. Consequently, we were able to unambiguously deduce the stereochemistries at C-35 for DTX-1 and DTX-2 based on analysis of NMR coupling constants and NOE interactions. Our results revealed that DTX-2 (3) has a stereochemistry opposite to that of DTX-1 (2) at C-35. Molecular modeling of the docking of 1-3 with protein phosphatase-1 and protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) suggested that the reduced affinity of DTX-2 for PP2A may be due to the newly defined stereochemistry at the 35-methyl group. The implications of these findings for biosynthesis and toxicology are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristofer Larsen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1033 Blindern, NO-0315 Oslo, Norway
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24
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Van Wagoner RM, Drummond AK, Wright JLC. Biogenetic Diversity of Cyanobacterial Metabolites. ADVANCES IN APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY 2007; 61:89-217. [PMID: 17448789 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2164(06)61004-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ryan M Van Wagoner
- Center for Marine Science, University of North Carolina at Wilmington, Wilmington, NC 28409, USA
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25
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MacKinnon SL, Cembella AD, Burton IW, Lewis N, LeBlanc P, Walter JA. Biosynthesis of 13-Desmethyl Spirolide C by the Dinoflagellate Alexandrium ostenfeldii. J Org Chem 2006; 71:8724-31. [PMID: 17080999 DOI: 10.1021/jo0608873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Biosynthetic origins of the cyclic imine toxin 13-desmethyl spirolide C were determined by supplementing cultures of the toxigenic dinoflagellate Alexandrium ostenfeldii with stable isotope-labeled precursors [1,2-13C2]acetate, [1-13C]acetate, [2-13CD3]acetate, and [1,2-13C2,15N]glycine and measuring the incorporation patterns by 13C NMR spectroscopy. Despite partial scrambling of the acetate labels, the results show that most carbons of the macrocycle are polyketide-derived and that glycine is incorporated as an intact unit into the cyclic imine moiety. This work represents the first conclusive evidence that such cyclic imine toxins are polyketides and provides support for biosynthetic pathways previously defined for other polyether dinoflagellate toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shawna L MacKinnon
- Institute for Marine Biosciences, National Research Council of Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax NS, Canada B3H 3Z1
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26
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Rein KS, Snyder RV. The biosynthesis of polyketide metabolites by dinoflagellates. ADVANCES IN APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY 2006; 59:93-125. [PMID: 16829257 PMCID: PMC2668218 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2164(06)59004-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen S Rein
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA
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27
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Lu CK, Chou HN, Lee CK, Lee TH. Prorocentin, a New Polyketide from the Marine Dinoflagellate Prorocentrum lima. Org Lett 2005; 7:3893-6. [PMID: 16119925 DOI: 10.1021/ol051300u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Prorocentin (1), isolated from an okadaic acid-producing organism, Prorocentrum lima, possessed all-trans trienes, an epoxide, as well as the 6/6/6-trans-fused/spiro-linked polyether ring moieties. The unique structure supports the proposed cyclization mechanism, polyene formation, epoxidation, and cyclization, of marine polyether toxins. The relative stereostructure was determined on the basis of spectral data. [structure: see text]
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Affiliation(s)
- Chung-Kuang Lu
- National Museum of Marine Biology and Aquarium, Pingtung 944, Taiwan.
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28
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Affiliation(s)
- Bradley S Moore
- College of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721-0207, USA
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29
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Miles CO, Wilkins AL, Hawkes AD, Selwood AI, Jensen DJ, Munday R, Cooney JM, Beuzenberg V. Polyhydroxylated amide analogs of yessotoxin from Protoceratium reticulatum. Toxicon 2005; 45:61-71. [PMID: 15581684 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2004.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2004] [Revised: 09/20/2004] [Accepted: 09/21/2004] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Two analogs of yessotoxin were isolated from extracts of a culture of Protoceratium reticulatum. The structures of the analogs were identified as trihydroxylated amides of 41a-homoyessotoxin (1) and 9-methyl-41a-homoyessotoxin (2) by one- and two-dimensional 1H and 13C NMR spectroscopy and LC-MS3 analyses. Structures were further confirmed by micro-scale chemical conversions combined with LC-MS3 analyses. No toxic effects were recorded in mice injected intraperitoneally with 2 at a dose of 5000 microg/kg.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher O Miles
- AgResearch Ltd, Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, New Zealand.
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30
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Daranas AH, Fernández JJ, Norte M, Gavín JA, Suárez-Gómez B, Souto ML. Biosynthetic studies of the DSP toxin skeleton. CHEM REC 2004; 4:1-9. [PMID: 15057864 DOI: 10.1002/tcr.10072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Marine toxins have drawn wide interest because their economical impact and disastrous effect upon the shellfish industry and public health in many parts of the world. One of the most interesting group of substances of marine toxins, from structural and pharmacological points of view are polyether compounds, which generally present a great diversity in size and potent biological activities. The subject of this work was about to biosynthesis of okadaic acid skeleton as leader as DSP toxins. Its biosynthesis attracts considerable attention since the carbon skeleton has been shown to be synthesised via an unusual route. In this paper we report on stable isotope incorporation experiments on DSP toxin in artificial cultures of dinoflagellate. The comparison of the degrees of incorporation in these samples measured by different methods led to contradictory results. This implies that further experimental data is needed in order to propose a logical biogenetic scheme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio H Daranas
- Instituto Universitario de Bio-Orgánica Antonio González, Universidad de La Laguna, Astrofísico Francisco Sánchez 2, 38206 La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
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31
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Abstract
The extraordinary chemical diversity seen in the cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) is especially pronounced in the ubiquitous tropical marine species, Lyngbya majuscula. The gene clusters responsible for the production of some of the secondary metabolites have recently been elucidated. The dinoflagellates, which are lower eukaryotic algae, also demonstrate chemical diversity and produce unique polycyclic ethers of polyketide origin. A new mechanism for the formation of the truncated polyketide backbones has recently been proposed. The toxicogenicity of dinoflagellates of the genus Pfiesteria has been the focus of controversy--are they 'killer organisms', as alleged? A recent investigation of Pfiesteria genes seems to rule out the presence of polyketide synthase, which is the gene responsible for the production of most dinoflagellate toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuzuru Shimizu
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881, USA.
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