AFM imaging of immobilized fibronectin: does the surface conjugation scheme affect the protein orientation/conformation?

Grafting of proteins onto polymeric surfaces: A synthesis and characterization challenge

This review aims at answering the following question: how can a researcher be sure to succeed in grafting a protein onto a polymer surface? Even if protein immobilization on solid supports has been used industrially for a long time, hence enabling natural enzymes to serve as a powerful tool, emergence of new supports such as polymeric surfaces for the development of so-called intelligent materials requires new approaches. In this review, we introduce the challenges in grafting protein on synthetic polymers, mainly because compared to hard surfaces, polymers may be sensitive to various aqueous media, depending on the pH or reductive molecules, or may exhibit state transitions with temperature. Then, the specificity of grafting on synthetic polymers due to difference of chemical functions availability or difference of physical properties are summarized. We present next the various available routes to covalently bond the protein onto the polymeric substrates considering the functional groups coming from the monomers used during polymerization reaction or post-modification of the surfaces. We also focus our review on a major concern of grafting protein, which is avoiding the potential loss of function of the immobilized protein. Meanwhile, this review considers the different methods of characterization used to determine the grafting efficiency but also the behavior of enzymes once grafted. We finally dedicate the last part of this review to industrial application and future prospective, considering the sustainable processes based on green chemistry.

A Comparative Study of Three Approaches to Fibre's Surface Functionalization

Polyester-based scaffolds are of research interest for the regeneration of a wide spectrum of tissues. However, there is a need to improve scaffold wettability and introduce bioactivity. Surface modification is a widely studied approach for improving scaffold performance and maintaining appropriate bulk properties. In this study, three methods to functionalize the surface of the poly(lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) PLCL fibres using gelatin immobilisation were compared. Hydrolysis, oxygen plasma treatment, and aminolysis were chosen as activation methods to introduce carboxyl (-COOH) and amino (-NH₂) functional groups on the surface before gelatin immobilisation. To covalently attach the gelatin, carbodiimide coupling was chosen for hydrolysed and plasma-treated materials, and glutaraldehyde crosslinking was used in the case of the aminolysed samples. Materials after physical entrapment of gelatin and immobilisation using carbodiimide coupling without previous activation were prepared as controls. The difference in gelatin amount on the surface, impact on the fibres morphology, molecular weight, and mechanical properties were observed depending on the type of modification and applied parameters of activation. It was shown that hydrolysis influences the surface of the material the most, whereas plasma treatment and aminolysis have an effect on the whole volume of the material. Despite this difference, bulk mechanical properties were affected for all the approaches. All materials were completely hydrophilic after functionalization. Cytotoxicity was not recognized for any of the samples. Gelatin immobilisation resulted in improved L929 cell morphology with the best effect for samples activated with hydrolysis and plasma treatment. Our study indicates that the use of any surface activation method should be limited to the lowest concentration/reaction time that enables subsequent satisfactory functionalization and the decision should be based on a specific function that the final scaffold material has to perform.

Biochip Surfaces Containing Recombinant Cell-Binding Domains of Fibronectin

Surface immobilization and characterization of the functional activity of fibronectin (Fn) type-III domains are reported. The domains FnIII9-10 or FnIII10 containing the RGD loop and PHSRN synergy site were recombinantly produced and covalently bound to chemically activated PEG methacrylate (MA) hydrogel coatings by microcontact printing. Such fabricated biochip surfaces were 6 mm in diameter and consisted of 190 µm wide protein stripes separated by 200 µm spacing. They were analyzed by imaging null ellipsometry, atomic force microscopy and fluorescence microscopy. Also, the coatings were tested in human foreskin fibroblast and HeLa cultures for at least 96 h, thus evaluating their suitability for controlled cell adhesion and proliferation. However, while HeLa cultures were equally well responsive to the FnIII9-10, FnIII10 and Fn surfaces, the fibroblasts displayed lower cell and lower focal adhesion areas, as well as lower proliferation rates on the Fn fragment surfaces as compared to Fn. Nevertheless, full functional activity of the fibroblasts was confirmed by immunostaining of Fn produced by the cells adherent on the biochip surfaces. The observed interaction differences that were either cell type or surface composition-dependent demonstrate the potential use of specifically engineered Fn and other ECM protein-derived domains in biochip architectures.

Fibronectin-Enriched Biomaterials, Biofunctionalization, and Proactivity: A Review

Modern innovation in reconstructive medicine implies the proposition of material-based strategies suitable for tissue repair and regeneration. The development of such systems necessitates the design of advanced materials and the control of their interactions with their surrounding cellular and molecular microenvironments. Biomaterials must actively engage cellular matter to direct and modulate biological responses at implant sites and beyond. Indeed, it is essential that a true dialogue exists between the implanted device and the cells. Biomaterial engineering implies the knowledge and control of cell fate considering the globality of the adhesion process, from initial cell attachment to differentiation. The extracellular matrix (ECM) represents a complex microenvironment able to meet these essential needs to establish a relationship between the material and the contacting cells. The ECM exhibits specific physical, chemical, and biochemical characteristics. Considering the complexity, heterogeneity, and versatility of ECM actors, fibronectin (Fn) has emerged among the ECM protagonists as the most pertinent representative key actor. The following review focuses on and synthesizes the research supporting the potential to use Fn in biomaterial functionalization to mimic the ECM and enhance cell–material interactions.

Fibronectin grafting to enhance skin sealing around transcutaneous titanium implant

Intraosseous transcutaneous amputation prosthesis is a new approach in orthopedic implants that overcomes socket prosthesis problems. Its long-term performance requires a tight skin-implant seal to prevent infections. In this study, fibronectin (Fn), a widely used adhesion protein, was adsorbed or grafted onto titanium alloy. Fn grafting was performed using two different linking arms, dopamine/glutaric anhydride or phosphonate. The characterization of Fn-modified surfaces showed that Fn grating via phosphonate has led to the highest amount of Fn cell-binding site (RGD, arginine, glycine, and aspartate) available on the surface. Interestingly, cell culture studies revealed a strong correlation between the amount of available RGD ligands and cellular behavior, since enhanced proliferation and spreading of fibroblasts were noticed on Fn-grafted surfaces via phosphonate. In addition, an original in vitro mechanical test, inspired from the real situation, to better predict clinical outcomes after implant insertion, has been developed. Tensile test data showed that the adhesion strength of a bio-engineered dermal tissue was significantly higher around Fn-grafted surfaces via phosphonate, as compared to untreated surfaces. This study sheds light on the importance of an appropriate selection of the linking arm to tightly control the spatial conformation of biomolecules on the material surface, and consequently cell interactions at the interface tissue/implant.

The Body's Cellular and Molecular Response to Protein-Coated Medical Device Implants: A Review Focused on Fibronectin and BMP Proteins

Recent years have seen a marked rise in implantation into the body of a great variety of devices: hip, knee, and shoulder replacements, pacemakers, meshes, glucose sensors, and many others. Cochlear and retinal implants are being developed to restore hearing and sight. After surgery to implant a device, adjacent cells interact with the implant and release molecular signals that result in attraction, infiltration of the tissue, and attachment to the implant of various cell types including monocytes, macrophages, and platelets. These cells release additional signaling molecules (chemokines and cytokines) that recruit tissue repair cells to the device site. Some implants fail and require additional revision surgery that is traumatic for the patient and expensive for the payer. This review examines the literature for evidence to support the possibility that fibronectins and BMPs could be coated on the implants as part of the manufacturing process so that the proteins could be released into the tissue surrounding the implant and improve the rate of successful implantation.

A glance on the role of fibronectin in controlling cell response at biomaterial interface

The bioactivity of biomaterials is closely related to cell response in contact with them. However, shortly after their insertion, materials are soon covered with proteins that constitute the biological fluids, and which render the direct surface recognition by cells almost impossible. The control of protein adsorption at the interface is therefore desirable. Extracellular matrix proteins are of particular interest in this sense, due to their well-known ability to modulate cell behavior. Particularly, fibronectin plays a leading role, being present in both healthy and injured tissues undergoing healing and regeneration. The aim of the present work is to give an overview on fibronectin and on its involvement in the control of cell behavior providing evidence of its pivotal role in the control of cell adhesion, spreading, migration, proliferation and differentiation. A deep insight into methods to enrich biomaterials surface with fibronectin will be then discussed, as well as new cues on the possibility to design tailored platforms able to specifically retain fibronectin from the surrounding extracellular milieu.

Attachment of enzymes to hydrophilic magnetic nanoparticles through DNA-directed immobilization with enhanced stability and catalytic activity

An efficient enzyme immobilization strategy based on DNA directed immobilization on hydrophilic polydopamine (PDA) modified magnetic nanoparticles was developed in this study.

RGD and BMP-2 mimetic peptide crosstalk enhances osteogenic commitment of human bone marrow stem cells

Human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (hBMSCs) commitment and differentiation are dictated by bioactive molecules sequestered within their Extra Cellular Matrix (ECM). One common approach to mimic the physiological environment is to functionalize biomaterial surfaces with ECM-derived peptides able to recruit stem cells and trigger their linage-specific differentiation. The objective of this work was to investigate the effect of RGD and BMP-2 ligands crosstalk and density on the extent of hBMSCs osteogenic commitment, without recourse to differentiation medium. RGD peptide promotes cell adhesion via cell transmembrane integrin receptors, while BMP-2 peptide, corresponding to residues 73-92 of Bone Morphogenetic Protein-2, was shown to induce hBMSCs osteoblast differentiation. The immobilization of peptides on aminated glass was ascertained by X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS), the density of grafted peptides was quantified by fluorescence microscopy and the surface roughness was evaluated using Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). The osteogenic commitment of hBMSCs cultured on RGD and/or BMP-2 surfaces was characterized by immunohistochemistry using STRO-1 as specific stem cells marker and Runx-2 as an earlier osteogenic marker. Biological results showed that the osteogenic commitment of hBMSCs was enhanced on bifunctionalized surfaces as compared to surfaces containing BMP-2, while on RGD surfaces cells mainly preserved their stemness character. These results demonstrated that RGD and BMP-2 mimetic peptides act synergistically to enhance hBMSCs osteogenesis without supplementing the media with osteogenic factors. These findings contribute to the development of biomimetic materials, allowing a deeper understanding of signaling pathways that govern the transition of stem cells towards the osteoblastic lineage.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

For a long time, scientists thought that the differentiation of Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs) into bone cells was dictated by growth factors. This manuscript shed light on other ligands that play a crucial role in regulating MSCs fate. In concrete terms, it was demonstrated that the osteoinductive effect of BMP-2 peptide is 2 folds improved in the presence of adhesive RGD peptide. Compared to previous works highlighting this synergistic cooperation between RGD and BMP-2 peptides, the main strength of this work lies to the use of primitive human cells (hMSCs) and well-defined biomimetic material surfaces (controlled surface roughness and peptide densities). This work provides valuable insights to develop custom-designed in vitro cell culture models, capable of targeting the desired cell response.

Lateral Chain Length in Polyalkyl Acrylates Determines the Mobility of Fibronectin at the Cell/Material Interface

Cells, by interacting with surfaces indirectly through a layer of extracellular matrix proteins, can respond to a variety of physical properties, such as topography or stiffness. Polymer surface mobility is another physical property that is less well understood but has been indicated to hold the potential to modulate cell behavior. Polymer mobility is related to the glass-transition temperature (Tg) of the system, the point at which a polymer transitions from an amorphous solid to a more liquid-like state. This work shows that changes in polymer mobility translate to interfacial mobility of extracellular matrix proteins adsorbed on the material surface. This study has utilized a family of polyalkyl acrylates with similar chemistry but different degrees of mobility, obtained through increasing length of the side chain. These materials are used, in conjunction with fluorescent fibronectin, to determine the mobility of this interfacial layer of protein that constitutes the initial cell-material interface. Furthermore, the extent of fibronectin domain availability (III9, III10, - the integrin binding site), cell-mediated reorganization, and cell differentiation was also determined. A nonmonotonic dependence of fibronectin mobility on polymer surface mobility was observed, with a similar trend noted in cell-mediated reorganization of the protein layer by L929 fibroblasts. The availability of the integrin-binding site was higher on the more mobile surfaces, where a similar organization of the protein into networks at the material interface was observed. Finally, differentiation of C2C12 myoblasts was seen to be highly sensitive to surface mobility upon inhibition of cell contractility. Altogether, these findings show that polymer mobility is a subtle influence that translates to the cell/material interface through the protein layer to alter the biological activity of the surface.

A comparison of adsorbed and grafted fibronectin coatings under static and dynamic conditions

Coatings for medical devices are expected to improve their surface biocompatibility mainly by being bioactive, i.e. stimulating healing-oriented interactions with living cells, tissues and organs.

Design of surface modifications for nanoscale sensor applications

Nanoscale biosensors provide the possibility to miniaturize optic, acoustic and electric sensors to the dimensions of biomolecules. This enables approaching single-molecule detection and new sensing modalities that probe molecular conformation. Nanoscale sensors are predominantly surface-based and label-free to exploit inherent advantages of physical phenomena allowing high sensitivity without distortive labeling. There are three main criteria to be optimized in the design of surface-based and label-free biosensors: (i) the biomolecules of interest must bind with high affinity and selectively to the sensitive area; (ii) the biomolecules must be efficiently transported from the bulk solution to the sensor; and (iii) the transducer concept must be sufficiently sensitive to detect low coverage of captured biomolecules within reasonable time scales. The majority of literature on nanoscale biosensors deals with the third criterion while implicitly assuming that solutions developed for macroscale biosensors to the first two, equally important, criteria are applicable also to nanoscale sensors. We focus on providing an introduction to and perspectives on the advanced concepts for surface functionalization of biosensors with nanosized sensor elements that have been developed over the past decades (criterion (iii)). We review in detail how patterning of molecular films designed to control interactions of biomolecules with nanoscale biosensor surfaces creates new possibilities as well as new challenges.

Enzyme immobilization on silane-modified surface through short linkers: fate of interfacial phases and impact on catalytic activity

We investigated the mechanism of enzyme immobilization on silanized surfaces through coupling agents (cross-linkers) in order to understand the role of these molecules on interfacial processes and their effect on catalytic activity. To this end, we used a model multimeric enzyme (G6PDH) and several cross-linking molecules with different chemical properties, including the nature of the end-group (-NCO, -NCS, -CHO), the connecting chain (aliphatic vs aromatic), and geometrical constraints (meta vs para-disubstituted aromatics). There did not seem to be radical differences in the mechanism of enzyme adsorption according to the linker used as judged from QCM-D, except that in the case of DIC (1,4-phenylene diisocyanate) the adsorption occurred more rapidly. In contrast, the nature of the cross-linker exerted a strong influence on the amount of enzyme immobilized as estimated from XPS, and more unexpectedly on the stability of the underlying silane layer. DIC, PDC (1,4-phenylene diisothiocyanate), or GA (glutaraldehyde) allowed successful enzyme immobilization. When the geometry of the linker was changed from 1,4-phenylene diisothiocyanate to 1,3-phenylene diisothiocyanate (MDC), the silane layer was subjected to degradation, upon enzyme adsorption, and the amount of immobilized molecules was significantly lowered. TE (terephtalaldehyde) and direct enzyme deposition without cross-linker were similar to MDC. The organization of immobilized enzymes also depended on the immobilization procedure, as different degrees of aggregation were observed by AFM. A correlation between the size of the aggregates and the catalytic properties of the enzyme was established, suggesting that aggregation may enhance the thermostability of the multimeric enzyme, probably through a compaction of the 3D structure.

Electrochemical modulation of plasma fibronectin surface conformation enables filament formation and control of endothelial cell–surface interactions

Electrochemical modulation of a gold surface charge induces conformational changes in fibronectin when immobilized on the surface. A negatively-charged surface yields an open and filamentous fibronectin which significantly improves endothelial cell adhesion.

Plasma functionalization of poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogel for cell adhesion enhancement

Tailoring the interface interactions between a biomaterial and the surrounding tissue is a capital aspect to consider for the design of medical devices. Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) hydrogels present suitable mechanical properties for various biological substitutes, however the lack of cell adhesion on their surface is often a problem. The common approach is to incorporate biomolecules, either by blending or coupling. But these modifications disrupt PVA intra- and intermolecular interactions leading therefore to a loss of its original mechanical properties. In this work, surface modification by glow discharge plasma, technique known to modify only the surface without altering the bulk properties, has been investigated to promote cell attachment on PVA substrates. N2/H2 microwave plasma treatment has been performed, and the chemical composition of PVA surface has been investigated. X-ray photoelectron and Fourier transform infrared analyses on the plasma-treated films revealed the presence of carbonyl and nitrogen species, including amine and amide groups, while the main structure of PVA was unchanged. Plasma modification induced an increase in the PVA surface wettability with no significant change in surface roughness. In contrast to untreated PVA, plasma-modified films allowed successful culture of mouse fibroblasts and human endothelial cells. These results evidenced that the grafting was stable after rehydration and that it displayed cell adhesive properties. Thus plasma amination of PVA is a promising approach to improve cell behavior on contact with synthetic hydrogels for tissue engineering.

Improved fibronectin-immobilized fibrinogen microthreads for the attachment and proliferation of fibroblasts

The aim of this study was to fabricate fibrinogen (Fbg) microfibers with different structural characteristics for the development of 3-D tissue-engineering scaffolds. Fabricated Fbg microfibers were investigated for their biomolecule encapsulation, cell adhesion, and proliferations. Microfibers with three different concentrations of Fbg (5, 10, and 15 wt%) were prepared by a gel solvent-extraction method using a silicone rubber tube. Fbg microfibers were covalently modified with fibronectin (FN) by using water-soluble 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide as the cross-linking agent. Fbg microfibers were characterized by their FN cross-linking properties, structural morphology, and in vitro degradation. Furthermore, FN/Fbg microfibers were evaluated for cell attachment and proliferation. The bio-compatibility and cell proliferation of the microfibers were assessed by measuring adenosine triphosphate activity in C2C12 fibroblast cells. Cell attachment and proliferation on microfibers were further examined using fluorescence and scanning electron microscopic images. FN loading on the microfibers was confirmed by fluorescence and infrared spectroscopy. Surface morphology was characterized by scanning electron microscopy, and showed highly aligned nanostructures for fibers made with 15 wt% Fbg, a more porous structure for fibers made with 10 wt% Fbg, and a less porous structure for those made with 5 wt% Fbg. Controlled biodegradation of the fiber was observed for 8 weeks by using an in vitro proteolytic degradation assay. Fbg microfibers with highly aligned nanostructures (15 wt%) showed enhanced biomolecule encapsulation, as well as higher cell adhesion and proliferation than another two types of FN/Fbg fibers (5 and 10 wt%) and unmodified Fbg fibers. The promising results obtained from the present study reveal that optimal structure of Fbg microfibers could be used as a potential substratum for growth factors or drug release, especially in wound healing and vascular tissue engineering, in which fibers could be applied to promote and orient cell adhesion and proliferation.

Nanostructures of designed geometry and functionality enable regulation of cellular signaling processes

Extracellular matrices (ECM) triggered cellular signaling processes often begin with the clustering of the cellular receptors such as integrin and FcεRI. The sizes of these initial protein complexes or clusters are tens to 100 nm in dimension; therefore, engineered nanostructures could provide effective mimics of ECM for investigation and control of the initial and downstream specific signaling processes. This current topic discusses recent advances in nanotechnology in the context of design and production of matching chemical functionality and geometry for control of specific cellular signaling processes. Two investigations are reported to demonstrate this concept: (a) how the presentation of antigen at the nanometer scale would influence the aggregation of FcεRI, which would impact the formation of activation complexes, leading to the rearrangement of actin in cytoskeleton and degranulation or activation of mast cells; (b) how the engineered nanostructure could guide the initial integrin clustering, which would impact the formation of focal adhesion and downstream cell signaling cascades, leading to polarization, migration, and morphological changes. Complementary to engineered ECMs using synthetic ligands or peptides, or topographic control at the micrometer scale, nanostructures of designed geometry and chemical functionality provide new and effective biochemical cues for regulation of cellular signaling processes and downstream behaviors.

Characterization of multilayer anti-fog coatings

Fog formation on transparent substrates constitutes a major challenge in several optical applications requiring excellent light transmission characteristics. Anti-fog coatings are hydrophilic, enabling water to spread uniformly on the surface rather than form dispersed droplets. Despite the development of several anti-fog coating strategies, the long-term stability, adherence to the underlying substrate, and resistance to cleaning procedures are not yet optimal. We report on a polymer-based anti-fog coating covalently grafted onto glass surfaces by means of a multistep process. Glass substrates were first activated by plasma functionalization to provide amino groups on the surface, resulting in the subsequent covalent bonding of the polymeric layers. The anti-fog coating was then created by the successive spin coating of (poly(ethylene-maleic anhydride) (PEMA) and poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) layers. PEMA acted as an interface by covalently reacting with both the glass surface amino functionalities and the PVA hydroxyl groups, while PVA added the necessary surface hydrophilicity to provide anti-fog properties. Each step of the procedure was monitored by XPS, which confirmed the successful grafting of the coating. Coating thickness was evaluated by profilometry, nanoindentation, and UV visible light transmission. The hydrophilic nature of the anti-fog coating was assessed by water contact angle (CA), and its anti-fog efficiency was determined visually and tested quantitatively for the first time using an ASTM standard protocol. Results show that the PEMA/PVA coating not only delayed the initial period required for fog formation but also decreased the rate of light transmission decay. Finally, following a 24 hour immersion in water, these PEMA/PVA coatings remained stable and preserved their anti-fog properties.

Conjugation of fibronectin onto three-dimensional porous scaffolds for vascular tissue engineering applications

Tissue engineering scaffolds provide the three-dimensional (3-D) geometry and mechanical framework required for regulating cell behavior and facilitating tissue maturation. Unfortunately, most synthetic scaffolds lack the biological recognition motifs required for seeded cell interaction. In order to impart this recognition, synthetic scaffolds should possess appropriate biological functionality. Here, for the first time, we present a comprehensive study of fibronectin (FN) conjugation onto highly porous 3-D poly(carbonate) urethane scaffolds through grafted poly(acrylic acid) spacers on the urethane backbone. Scanning electron microscopy was used to ensure that the porous structures of the scaffolds were preserved throughout the multiple conjugation steps, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy was used to monitor the reaction progress. Toluidine blue staining revealed that increasing acrylic acid concentration and grafting time increased the number of poly(acrylic acid) groups incorporated. High resolution X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy studies of the scaffolds demonstrated an increase in nitrogen and sulfur due to FN conjugation. Immunofluorescence microscopy studies showed an even distribution of conjugated FN on the 3-D scaffolds. Cell culture studies using human coronary artery smooth muscle cells demonstrated that FN-conjugated scaffolds had improved cell attachment and infiltration depth compared with scaffolds without FN conjugation and with those scaffolds on which FN was merely adsorbed.

Carbodiimide conjugation of fibronectin on collagen basal lamina analogs enhances cellular binding domains and epithelialization

To improve the regenerative potential of biomaterials used as bioengineered scaffolds, it is necessary to strategically incorporate biologically active molecules that promote in vivo cellular processes that lead to a fully functional tissue. This work evaluates the effects of strategically binding fibronectin (FN) to collagen basal lamina analogs to enhance keratinocyte functions necessary for complete skin regeneration. We found that FN that was passively adsorbed to collagen-glycosaminoglycan basal lamina analogs enhanced epithelial thickness and keratinocyte proliferation compared with nontreated basal lamina analogs at 3 days of air/liquid (A/L) interface culture. Additionally, we evaluated the availability of FN cellular binding site domains when FN was either passively adsorbed or [1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide hydrochloride] conjugated to basal lamina analogs fabricated from collagen-glycosaminoglycan coprecipitate or self-assembled type I collagen. It was found that 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide hydrochloride conjugation of FN significantly enhanced FN binding site presentation as well as epithelial thickness. Overall, the results gained from this study will be used to improve the regenerative capacity of basal lamina analogs for bioengineered skin substitutes as well as the development of bioengineered scaffolds for other tissue engineering applications.

Deposition of Functional Polymer Thin Films Using Atmospheric Pressure Plasma for Biomedical Applications – Endothelialization of Vascular Prostheses

Functionalized plasma polymer thin films were obtained in a dielectric barrier discharge at atmospheric pressure in an atmosphere of N2 and C2H4. The coatings were hydrophilic, adherent, chemically stable and presented a surface concentration of NH2 suitable for further biomolecule conjugation. Covalent grafting of a linking arm (glutaric anhydride) and subsequent conjugation of fibronectin, a protein of the extracellular matrix, were successful. Finally, endothelial cell adhesion experiments were performed directly on the functionalized thin films as well as on the conjugated coatings. Effects on cell adhesion were observed as a function of the plasma thin film deposition parameters.

Temporal effect of functional blocking of beta1 integrin on cell adhesion strength under serum depletion

Cell adhesion is generally concomitant to the formation of focal adhesion. Although it is well-known that focal adhesion plays an important role in the functional regulations of anchorage dependent cells, previous experimental studies have not provided quantitative description of the relation between focal adhesion and biophysical responses of cells. Furthermore, there is lack of knowledge on the importance of the beta1 integrin subunit to the dynamic responses of cells during initial cell seeding. In this study, we attempt to bridge the quantitative connection between focal adhesion density and cell-substrate interactions and evaluate the influence on functional blocking of beta1 integrin on adhesion strength. Total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM), fluorescence microscopy, and phase contrast microscopy was employed to study the time-dependent evolvement of vinculin pattern, distribution of actin filament, and morphological change, respectively, during 4 h of culture for porcine esophageal fibroblasts (non-blocked and beta1-blocked) on a fibronectin-coated surface. Micropipet aspiration technique was used to study the change of mechanotransduction through the determination of adhesion force and strength. It is shown in our experimental results that spread area, adhesion force, and adhesion strength increases over time on the two types of cells. Throughout the culture period, the two key mechanotransduction parameters of non-blocked cells is higher than those of beta1-blocked cells. Interestingly, adhesion strength initially ascends, then begins to diminish at a critical time point, and finally resumes increasing linearly against the increase of focal adhesion density. This variation as mentioned above can be explained by peeling and fracture models based on the dissimilar vinculin pattern of cells after being cultured for different time periods. Moreover, the averaged focal adhesion strength and non-focal adhesion strength of beta1-blocked cells are significantly less than those of non-blocked of cells. The weaker adhesion strength on beta(1)-blocked cells is directly caused by lower focal and non-focal adhesion strength, as well as by smaller focal adhesion density.

Modulation of cell adhesion complexes by surface protein patterns

Cell adhesion is an important process in several biological phenomena. To investigate the formation and organization of focal adhesions, we developed a patterning approach based on electron beam lithography. Nanodots (radius <1230 nm) and nanorings (inner radius <320 nm) of fibronectin (FN) were patterned on a K-Casein background. Intracellular vinculin immunofluorescence mirrored the FN nanopatterns. Atomic force microscopy showed that FN nanodots and nanorings organize the immediate cytoskeleton into straight fibrils and diverging fibril bundles, respectively. Our results suggest that a minimum of approximately 40 FN molecules is required for a cell to form a focal adhesion.

Probing fibronectin-surface interactions: a multitechnique approach

The development of adhesive as well as antiadhesive surfaces is essential in various biomaterial applications. In this study, we have used a multidisciplinary approach that combines biological and physicochemical methods to progress in our understanding of cell-surface interactions. Four model surfaces have been used to investigate fibronectin (Fn) adsorption and the subsequent morphology and adhesion of preosteoblasts. Such experimental conditions lead us to distinguish between anti- and proadhesive substrata. Our results indicate that Fn is not able to induce cell adhesion on antiadhesive materials. On adhesive substrata, Fn did not increase the number of adherent cells but favored their spreading. This work also examined Fn-surface interactions using ELISA immunoassays, fluorescent labeling of Fn, and force spectroscopy with Fn-modified tips. The results provided clear evidence of the advantages and limitations of each technique. All of the techniques confirmed the important adsorption of Fn on proadhesive surfaces for cells. By contrast, antiadhesive substrata for cells avoided Fn adsorption. Furthermore, ELISA experiments enabled us to verify the accessibility of cell binding sites to adsorbed Fn molecules.

Osteoblastic cell behavior on nanostructured metal implants

Aims: Surface modifications at the nanometric scale may promote protein adsorption, cell adhesion and thus favor the osseointegration of metal implants. The behavior of osteoblastic cells was studied on mirror-polished (Smooth-SS) and nanostructured (Nano-SS) stainless steel surfaces. Materials & methods: The nanostructuration was obtained by anodization. The surfaces were characterized by scanning electron, atomic force microscopy (AFM) and X-ray photoelectron specytoscopy. Osteoblastic cells were cultured on these surfaces. Results & discussion: AFM showed a regular array of pores on the Nano-SS. Osteoblastic cells spread more rapidly on Nano-SS surfaces than on Smooth-SS surfaces. Cell viability was similar on Smooth-SS and Nano-SS. Alkaline phosphatase activity increased with culture time whatever the substrate but was better enhanced at 21 days on the Nano-SS than on the Smooth-SS. Conclusion: This study shows that the nanostructuration of metal implants may improve the adhesion and differentiation of osteoblastic cells.