Optical and magnetic resonance imaging of cell death and platelet activation using annexin a5-functionalized quantum dots

A Hexanuclear Gadolinium(III)-Based Nanoprobe for Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Tumor Apoptosis

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is instrumental in the noninvasive evaluation of tumor tissues in patients subjected to chemotherapy, thereby yielding essential diagnostic data crucial for the prognosis of tumors and the formulation of therapeutic strategies. Currently, commercially available MRI contrast agents (CAs) predominantly consist of mononuclear gadolinium(III) complexes. Because there is only one Gd(III) atom per molecule, these CAs often require administration in high doses to achieve the desired contrast quality, which inevitably leads to some adverse events. Herein, we develop a six-nuclei, apoptosis-targeting T1 CA, Gd6-ZnDPA nanoprobe, which consists of a hexanuclear gadolinium nanocluster (Gd6) with an apoptosis-targeting group (ZnDPA). The amplification of Gd(III) by the hexanuclear structure generates its high longitudinal relaxivity (44.67 mM-1 s-1, 1T) and low r1/r2 ratio (0.68, 1T). Based on the Solomon-Bloembergen-Morgan (SBM) theory, this notable improvement is primarily ascribed to a long correlation tumbling time (τR). More importantly, the Gd6-ZnDPA nanoprobe shows excellent tumor apoptosis properties with an enhanced MR signal ratio (∼74%) and a long MRI imaging acquisition time window (∼48 h) in 4T1 tumor-bearing mice. This study introduces an experimental gadolinium-based CA for the potential imaging of tumor apoptosis in the context of MRI.

Genetically encoded phosphatidylserine biosensor for in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo labelling

BACKGROUND

The dynamics of phosphatidylserine in the plasma membrane is a tightly regulated feature of eukaryotic cells. Phosphatidylserine (PS) is found preferentially in the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane. Disruption of this asymmetry leads to the exposure of phosphatidylserine on the cell surface and is associated with cell death, synaptic pruning, blood clotting and other cellular processes. Due to the role of phosphatidylserine in widespread cellular functions, an efficient phosphatidylserine probe is needed to study them. Currently, a few different phosphatidylserine labelling tools are available; however, these labels have unfavourable signal-to-noise ratios and are difficult to use in tissues due to limited permeability. Their application in living tissue requires injection procedures that damage the tissue and release damage-associated molecular patterns, which in turn stimulates phosphatidylserine exposure.

METHODS

For this reason, we developed a novel genetically encoded phosphatidylserine probe based on the C2 domain of the lactadherin (MFG-E8) protein, suitable for labelling exposed phosphatidylserine in various research models. We tested the C2 probe specificity to phosphatidylserine on hybrid bilayer lipid membranes by observing surface plasmon resonance angle shift. Then, we analysed purified fused C2 proteins on different cell culture lines or engineered AAVs encoding C2 probes on tissue cultures after apoptosis induction. For in vivo experiments, neurotropic AAVs were intravenously injected into perinatal mice, and after 2 weeks, brain slices were collected to observe C2-SNAP expression.

RESULTS

The biophysical analysis revealed the high specificity of the C2 probe for phosphatidylserine. The fused recombinant C2 proteins were suitable for labelling phosphatidylserine on the surface of apoptotic cells in various cell lines. We engineered AAVs and validated them in organotypic brain tissue cultures for non-invasive delivery of the genetically encoded C2 probe and showed that these probes were expressed in the brain in vivo after intravenous AAV delivery to mice.

CONCLUSIONS

We have demonstrated that the developed genetically encoded PS biosensor can be utilised in a variety of assays as a two-component system of C2 and C2m2 fusion proteins. This system allows for precise quantification and PS visualisation at directly specified threshold levels, enabling the evaluation of PS exposure in both physiological and cell death processes.

In Vitro and In Vivo Fluorescence Imaging of Antibody-Drug Conjugate-Induced Tumor Apoptosis Using Annexin V-EGFP Conjugated Quantum Dots

Antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) are conjugates of a monoclonal antibody and a cytotoxic drug that induce tumor apoptosis. The evaluation of ADC-induced tumor apoptosis is crucial for the development of ADCs for cancer therapy. To evaluate the efficacy of ADCs, we present in vitro and in vivo fluorescence imaging techniques for ADC-induced tumor apoptosis using annexin V-EGFP (EGFP: enhanced green fluorescent protein) conjugated quantum dots (annexin V-EGFP-QDs). This probe emits visible (VIS) and near-infrared (NIR) dual fluorescence at 515 nm (EGFP emission) and 850 nm (QD emission), which can be used for the detection of tumor apoptosis at the cellular and whole-body levels. By using annexin V-EGFP-QDs, we achieved VIS and NIR fluorescence imaging of human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-positive breast tumor apoptosis induced by an ADC, Kadcyla (trastuzumab emtansine). The results show that the in vitro and in vivo fluorescence imaging of ADC-induced tumor apoptosis using annexin V-EGFP-QDs is a useful tool to evaluate the efficacy of ADCs for cancer therapy.

Tailor made magnetic nanolights: fabrication to cancer theranostics applications

Nanoparticles having magnetic and fluorescent properties could be considered as a gift to materials scientists due to their unique magneto-optical qualities. Multiple component particles can overcome challenges related with a single component and unveil bifunctional/multifunctional features that can enlarge their applications in diagnostic imaging agents and therapeutic delivery vehicles. Bifunctional nanoparticles that have both luminescent and magnetic features are termed as magnetic nanolights. Herein, we present recent progress of magneto-fluorescent nanoparticles (quantum dots based magnetic nanoparticles, Janus particles, and heterocrystalline fluorescent magnetic materials), comprehensively describing fabrication strategies, types, and biomedical applications. In this review, our aim is not only to encompass the preparation strategies of these special types of magneto-fluorescent nanomaterials but also their extensive applications in bioimaging techniques, cancer therapy (targeted and hyperthermic), and sustained release of active agents (drugs, proteins, antibodies, hormones, enzymes, growth factors).

Activated Platelet-Homing Nanoplatform for Targeting Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Aneurysm-Related Thrombus in Rabbits

Thrombosis is closely related to the instability of intracranial aneurysm (IA), whose rupture is associated with high morbidity and mortality. It is difficult to detect an IA-related thrombus because traditional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and even contrast-enhanced MRI cannot clearly distinguish a thrombus from the surrounding tissues. Herein, a nanoplatform [(MFe₂O₄-ZnDPA nanoparticles (NPs)], consisting of Zn_0.4Co_0.6Fe₂O₄@Zn_0.4Mn_0.6Fe₂O₄ NPs for imaging and Zn(II)-bis(dipicolylamine) (ZnDPA) for thrombus targeting, is constructed to target an experimental aneurysm-related thrombus in rabbits via MRI. In vitro experiments including platelet safety evaluation primarily prove that MFe₂O₄-ZnDPA NPs with a high MRI transverse relaxation time (T₂) have good biocompatibility. MFe₂O₄-ZnDPA NPs could target a thrombus via the special interaction between ZnDPA and phosphatidylserine of activated platelets in the thrombus through MRI and Fe quantification assays. Moreover, after MFe₂O₄-ZnDPA NPs are injected into the ear vein of common carotid artery aneurysm model rabbits, MRI shows that MFe₂O₄-ZnDPA NPs could accumulate in the aneurysm-related thrombus from 0 to 15 min after injection and decrease in the next 45 min. Meanwhile, MFe₂O₄-ZnDPA NPs could decrease the MRI T₂ signal of the aneurysm-related thrombus to enhance the outline of the aneurysm. This study demonstrates that a nanoplatform can enhance the detection of an aneurysm-related thrombus as well as aneurysm itself to assist further treatment of IA.

Quantum Dots and Gd3+ Chelates: Advances and Challenges Towards Bimodal Nanoprobes for Magnetic Resonance and Optical Imaging

The development of multimodal nanoprobes has been growing in recent years. Among these novel nanostructures are bimodal systems based on quantum dots (QDs) and low molecular weight Gd³⁺ chelates, prepared for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and optical analyses. MRI is a technique used worldwide that provides anatomic resolution and allows distinguishing of physiological differences at tissue and organ level. On the other hand, optical techniques are very sensitive and allow events to be followed at the cellular or molecular level. Thus, the association of these two techniques has the potential to achieve a more complete comprehension of biological processes. In this review, we present state-of-the-art research concerning the development of potential multimodal optical/paramagnetic nanoprobes based on Gd³⁺ chelates and QDs, highlighting their preparation strategies and overall properties.

Protein kinase inhibitors in traumatic brain injury and repair: New roles of nanomedicine

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) causes physical injury to the cell membranes of neurons, glial and axons causing the release of several neurochemicals including glutamate and cytokines altering cell-signaling pathways. Upregulation of mitogen associated protein kinase (MAPK) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) occurs that is largely responsible for cell death. The pharmacological blockade of these pathways results in cell survival. In this review role of several protein kinase inhibitors on TBI induced oxidative stress, blood-brain barrier breakdown, brain edema formation, and resulting brain pathology is discussed in the light of current literature.

Gadolinium-based bimodal probes to enhance T1-Weighted magnetic resonance/optical imaging

Gd³⁺-based contrast agents have been extensively used for signal enhancement of T₁-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) due to the large magnetic moment and long electron spin relaxation time of the paramagnetic Gd³⁺ ion. The key requisites for the development of Gd³⁺-based contrast agents are their relaxivities and stabilities which can be achieved by chemical modifications. These modifications include coordinating Gd³⁺ with a chelator such as diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA) or 1,4,7,10-Tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid (DOTA), encapsulating Gd³⁺ in nanoparticles, conjugation to biomacromolecules such as polymer micelles and liposomes, or non-covalent binding to plasma proteins. In order to have a coherent diagnostic and therapeutic approach and to understand diseases better, the combination of MRI and optical imaging (OI) techniques into one technique entity has been developed to overcome the conventional boundaries of either imaging modality used alone through bringing the excellent spatial resolution of MRI and high sensitivity of OI into full play. Novel MRI and OI bimodal probes have been extensively studied in this regard. This review is an attempt to shed some light on the bimodal imaging probes by summarizing all recent noteworthy publications involving Gd³⁺ containing MR-optical imaging probes. The several key elements such as novel synthetic strategy, high sensitivity, biocompatibility, and targeting of the probes are highlighted in the review. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: The present article aims at giving an overview of the existing bimodal MRI and OI imaging probes. The review structured as a series of examples of paramagnetic Gd³⁺ ions, either as ions in the crystalline structure of inorganic materials or chelates for contrast enhancement in MRI, while they are used as optical imaging probes in different modes. The comprehensive review focusing on the synthetic strategies, characterizations and properties of these bimodal imaging probes will be helpful in a way to prepare related work.

Assay of Single-Cell Apoptosis by Ensemble and Single-Molecule Fluorescence Methods: Annexin-V/Polyethylene Glycol-Functionalized Quantum Dots as Probes

Apoptosis plays a critical role in many biological processes and the etiology of various diseases of the immune system. The study of apoptosis would allow both improving the diagnosis of certain diseases and serving as a target of drug screening. In this paper, we developed a sensitive assay of single-cell apoptosis using semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) as fluorescent-labeling probes. The principle of this assay is based on the detection of phosphatidylserine (PS) exposed on the plasma membrane during the drug-induced apoptosis. The QD-labeled annexin V (AV) was prepared to specifically target PS on the membrane of apoptotic cells, and PS was detected by fluorescent imaging, flow cytometer, and single-molecule fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS). We developed the procedures for conjugation of QDs to AV and for purification of their conjugates by gel chromatography. The obtained conjugates were characterized by FCS, capillary electrophoresis, and zeta potential analyzer. We studied the nonspecific adsorption of cells to different surface-modified QDs and found that the nonspecific adsorption effects were significantly reduced by modification of QDs with polyethylene glycol in the detection of apoptosis. In this assay, the results obtained by flow cytometry were consistent with the commercial test kit. Furthermore, a home-built single-molecule FCS system was developed for in situ study the drug-induced apoptosis. We observed the significant change in the diffusion coefficients of QDs on cells during the progress of cell apoptosis. Compared with conventional methods, the fluorescent methods represented here possess high sensitivity because of the use of high photo stability and brightness QDs as labeling probes and provide the temp-spatial information on a single apoptotic cell.

Bioluminescence Resonance Energy Transfer (BRET)-coupled Annexin V-functionalized Quantum Dots for Near-Infrared Optical Detection of Apoptotic Cells

Deregulation in apoptosis induces numerous diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular, and neurodegenerative diseases. Detection of apoptotic cells is crucial for understanding the mechanism of these diseases and for therapy development. Although optical imaging using visible-emitting fluorescent probes, such as FITC-labeled annexin V, is widely used for the detection of apoptotic cells, there are very limited probes that can be used in the near-infrared region (NIR) over 700 nm. Compared with visible light, NIR light is highly permeable in turbid biological samples and tissues. In addition, optical imaging in the NIR region shows low autofluorescence from biological samples, leading to clearer images with high signal to background ratios. Here, we report the synthesis of bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET)-coupled annexin V-functionalized quantum dots (QDs) and their application to NIR optical detection of apoptotic cells.

High magnetic relaxivity in a fluorescent CdSe/CdS/ZnS quantum dot functionalized with MRI contrast molecules

Fluorescent quantum dots functionalized with Gd(iii) MRI contrast agents produce an unprecedentedly high T₁ relaxivity per particle (6800 mM⁻¹ s⁻¹).

Application of semiconductor quantum dots in bioimaging and biosensing

In this review we present new concepts and recent progress in the application of semiconductor quantum dots (QD) as labels in two important areas of biology, bioimaging and biosensing.

Synthesis and Characterization of Mn:ZnSe/ZnS/ZnMnS Sandwiched QDs for Multimodal Imaging and Theranostic Applications

In this work, a facile aqueous synthesis method is optimized to produce Mn:ZnSe/ZnS/ZnMnS sandwiched quantum dots (SQDs). In this core-shell co-doped system, paramagnetic Mn(2+) ions are introduced as core and shell dopants to generate Mn phosphorescence and enhance the magnetic resonance imaging signal, respectively. T1 relaxivity of the nanoparticles can be improved and manipulated by raising the shell doping level. Steady state and time-resolved optical measurements suggest that, after high level shell doping, Mn phosphorescence of the core can be sustained by the sandwiched ZnS shell. Because the SQDs are free of toxic heavy metal compositions, excellent biocompatibility of the prepared nanocrystals is verified by in vitro MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay. To explore the theranostic applications of SQDs, liposome-SQD assemblies are prepared and used for ex vivo optical and magnetic resonance imaging. In addition, these engineered SQDs as nanocarrier for gene delivery in therapy of Panc-1 cancer cells are employed. The therapeutic effects of the nanocrystals formulation are confirmed by gene expression analysis and cell viability assay.

Gadolinium(iii) based nanoparticles for T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging probes

This review summarized the recent progress on Gd(iii)-based nanoparticles asT₁-weighted MRI contrast agents and multimodal contrast agents.

Breast Cancer: Conventional Diagnosis and Treatment Modalities and Recent Patents and Technologies

Breast cancer is the most prevalent cancer among women worldwide. However, increased survival is due to the dramatic advances in the screening methods, early diagnosis, and breakthroughs in treatments. Over the course of the last decade, many acquisitions have taken place in this critical field of research in the pharmaceutical industry. Advances in molecular biology and pharmacology aided in better understanding of breast cancer, enabling the design of smarter therapeutics able to target cancer and respond to its microenvironment efficiently. Patents and research papers investigating diagnosis and treatment strategies for breast cancer using novel technologies have been surveyed for the past 15 years. Various nanocarriers have been introduced to improve the therapeutic efficacy of anticancer drugs, including liposomes, polymeric micelles, quantum dots, nanoparticles, and dendrimers. This review provides an overview of breast cancer, conventional therapy, novel technologies in the management of breast cancer, and rational approaches for targeting breast cancer.

HIGHLIGHTS

Breast cancer is the most common cancer in women worldwide. However, survival rates vary widely, optimistically heading toward a positive trend. Increased survival is due to the drastic shift in the screening methods, early diagnosis, and breakthroughs in treatments.Different strategies of breast cancer classification and staging have evolved over the years. Intrinsic (molecular) subtyping is essential in clinical trials and well understanding of the disease.Many novel technologies are being developed to detect distant metastases and recurrent disease as well as to assess response to breast cancer management.Intensive research efforts are actively ongoing to take novel breast cancer therapeutics to potential clinical application.Most of the recent research papers and patents discuss one of the following strategies: the development of new drug entities that specifically target the breast tumor cells; tailor designing a novel carrier system that can multitask and multifunction as a drug carrier, targeting vehicle and even as a diagnostic tool, direct conjugation of a therapeutic drug moiety with a targeting moiety, diagnostic moiety or pharmacokinetics altering moiety; or the use of innovative nontraditional approaches such as genetic engineering, stem cells, or vaccinations.

Nanodiagnostics, nanopharmacology and nanotoxicology of platelet–vessel wall interactions

In physiological conditions, the interactions between blood platelets and endothelial cells play a major role in vascular reactivity and hemostasis. By contrast, increased platelet activation contributes to the pathogenesis of vascular pathology such as atherosclerosis, thrombosis, diabetes mellitus, hypertension and carcinogenesis. Nanomedicine, including nanodiagnostics and nanotherapeutics is poised to be used in the management of vascular diseases. However, the inherent risk and potential toxicity resultant from the use of nanosized (<100 nm) materials need to be carefully considered. This review, basing on a systematic search of literature provides state-of-the-art and focuses on new discoveries, as well as the potential benefits and threats in the field of nanodiagnostics, nanopharmacology and nanotoxicology of platelet–vessel wall interactions.

Quantum dots: bright and versatile in vitro and in vivo fluorescence imaging biosensors

Colourful cells and tissues: semiconductor quantum dots and their versatile applications in multiplexed bioimaging research.

Direct coupling of annexin A5 to VSOP yields small, protein-covered nanoprobes for MR imaging of apoptosis

Annexin A5 (Anx) has been extensively used for imaging apoptosis by single-photon emission computed tomography, positron emission tomography, optical imaging and MRI. Recently we introduced ultrasmall Anx-VSOP (very small iron oxide particles)--the smallest high-relaxivity probe for MRI of apoptosis. Here we present a simplified method for the direct coupling of Anx to VSOP, which resulted in nanoparticles that are nearly completely covered with human Anx. These superparamagnetic nanoparticles are only 14.4 ± 2.3 nm in diameter and have higher T2* relaxivity. Compared with existing probes, the small size and the Anx shielding provide prerequisites for good biocompatibility and bioavailability in target tissues. In vitro characterization showed specific binding of Anx-VSOP to apoptotic cells, which led to a signal loss in T2*-weighted MR measurements, while control probe M1324-VSOP produced no such change. Exploratory MRI was done in vivo in a cardiac model of ischemia-reperfusion damage illustrating the potential of the probe for future studies.

Magnetically engineered semiconductor quantum dots as multimodal imaging probes

Light-emitting semiconductor quantum dots (QDs) combined with magnetic resonance imaging contrast agents within a single nanoparticle platform are considered to perform as multimodal imaging probes in biomedical research and related clinical applications. The principles of their rational design are outlined and contemporary synthetic strategies are reviewed (heterocrystalline growth; co-encapsulation or assembly of preformed QDs and magnetic nanoparticles; conjugation of magnetic chelates onto QDs; and doping of QDs with transition metal ions), identifying the strengths and weaknesses of different approaches. Some of the opportunities and benefits that arise through in vivo imaging using these dual-mode probes are highlighted where tumor location and delineation is demonstrated in both MRI and fluorescence modality. Work on the toxicological assessments of QD/magnetic nanoparticles is also reviewed, along with progress in reducing their toxicological side effects for eventual clinical use. The review concludes with an outlook for future biomedical imaging and the identification of key challenges in reaching clinical applications.

Annexin-V modified QCM sensor for the label-free and sensitive detection of early stage apoptosis

An easily-made Annexin-V modified quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) sensor was constructed for the quantitative detection of early stage apoptosis for the first time, achieving the goals of specific capture and sensitive detection of target cells in one step without the need for cell labelling.

Magnetic quantum dots in biotechnology--synthesis and applications

Quantum dots (QDs) have great promise in biological imaging, and as this promise is realized, there has been increasing interest in combining the benefits of QDs with those of other materials to yield composites with multifunctional properties. One of the most common materials combined with QDs is magnetic materials, either as ions (e.g. gadolinium) or as nanoparticles (e.g. superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles, SPIONs). The fluorescent property of the QDs permits visualization, whereas the magnetic property of the composite enables imaging, magnetic separation, and may even have therapeutic benefit. In this review, the synthesis of fluorescent-magnetic nanoparticles, including magnetic QDs is explored; and the applications of these materials in imaging, separations, and theranostics are discussed. As the properties of these materials continue to improve, QDs have the potential to greatly impact biological imaging, diagnostics, and treatment.

Sensitive and visible detection of apoptotic cells on Annexin-V modified substrate using aminophenylboronic acid modified gold nanoparticles (APBA-GNPs) labeling

A new strategy for sensitive detection of early stage apoptosis was proposed based on silver-enhanced gold nanoparticle (GNP) label method. Annexin-V modified substrate was constructed via layer-by-layer (LBL) method for specific capture of early stage apoptotic Jurkat cells. A new kind of aminophenylboronic acid modified gold nanoparticle (APBA-GNP) was synthesized and utilized for labeling cells, followed by silver enhancement. Anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV) was applied to sensitive detection of Ag(+) dissolved from the deposited silver particles, which reflected the number of cells. A good linear range from 1 × 10(2) to 3.5 × 10(3) cells was achieved, with a detection limit of 38 apoptotic cells. Moreover, the gray color of silver enhancement could be observed by the naked eye, which could be used to tell apoptotic cells apart from normal cells. Therefore, using the silver-enhanced GNP label method, apoptotic cells could not only be sensitively detected via electrochemical technique, but also can be discriminated from normal cells by the naked eye.

Gadolinium-based CuInS2/ZnS nanoprobe for dual-modality magnetic resonance/optical imaging

A new magnetic resonance/optical nanoprobe with specific cellular targeting capabilities based on nontoxic CuInS2/ZnS quantum dots (QDs) with direct covalent attachment of a Gd(III)-complex for tumor-specific imaging is reported. We introduce amphiphilic poly(maleic anhydride-alt-1-octadecene) to interdigitate with hydrophobic, protective agents on the surface of CuInS2/ZnS QDs that allows phase transfer of hydrophobic QDs from the organic into aqueous phase. Carbodiimide chemistry is used to covalently couple the Gd(III) complex on the surface of CuInS2/ZnS QDs, and then folic acid is further utilized to functionalize this dual-modality nanoprobe for active tumor targeting based on the fact that the membrane-associated folate receptor is overexpressed in many tumor cells. The longitudinal relaxivity value is 3.72 mM(-1) s(-1) for the dual-modality nanoprobe and a clear, positive, and increasing contrast enhancement of magnetic resonance signals concurrently with increasing Gd(III) concentration is observed. The dual-modality nanoprobe exhibits negligible cytotoxicity with >80% cell viability at a concentration of up to 100 μg/mL in human cervical (HeLa), human liver carcinoma (HepG2), and human breast (MCF-7) cells after 24 h. The specificity of folic-acid-conjugated nanoprobe cellular uptake has been investigated by confocal scanning laser imaging, which revealed that HeLa cells, expressing the folate receptor, internalized a higher level of dual-modality nanoprobes than HepG2 and MCF-7 cells.

Functionalized quantum dots for biosensing and bioimaging and concerns on toxicity

Considerable efforts have been devoted to the development of novel functionalized nanomaterials for bio-oriented applications. With unique optical properties and molar scale production, colloidal photoluminescent quantum dots (QDs) have been properly functionalized with controlled interfaces as new class of optical probes with extensive use in biomedical research. In this review, we present a brief summary on the current research interests of using fine engineered QDs as a nanoplatform for biomedical sensing and imaging applications. In addition, recent concerns on the potential toxic effects of QDs are described as a general guidance for the development on QD formulations in future studies.

Theranostic probe based on lanthanide-doped nanoparticles for simultaneous in vivo dual-modal imaging and photodynamic therapy

Dual-modal in vivo tumor imaging and photodynamic therapy using hexagonal NaYF(4):Yb,Er/NaGdF(4) core-shell upconverting nanoparticles combined with a photosensitizer, chlorin e6, is reported. Tumors can be clearly observed not only in the upconversion luminescence image but also in the magnetic resonance image. In vivo photodynamic therapy by systemic administration is demonstrated under 980 nm irradiation.

Bioconjugation of luminescent silicon quantum dots to gadolinium ions for bioimaging applications

Luminescent imaging agents and MRI contrast agents are desirable components in the rational design of multifunctional nanoconstructs for biological imaging applications. Luminescent biocompatible silicon quantum dots (SiQDs) and gadolinium chelates can be applied for fluorescence microscopy and MRI, respectively. Here, we report the first synthesis of a nanocomplex incorporating SiQDs and gadolinium ions (Gd³⁺) for biological applications. The nanoconstruct is composed of a PEGylated micelle, with hydrophobic SiQDs in its core, covalently bound to DOTA-chelated Gd³⁺. Dynamic light scattering reveals a radius of 85 nm for these nanoconstructs, which is consistent with the electron microscopy results depicting radii ranging from 25 to 60 nm. Cellular uptake of the probes verified that they maintain their optical properties within the intracellular environment. The magnetic resonance relaxivity of the nanoconstruct was 2.4 mM⁻¹ s⁻¹ (in terms of Gd³⁺ concentration), calculated to be around 6000 mM⁻¹ s⁻¹ per nanoconstruct. These desirable optical and relaxivity properties of the newly developed probe open the door for use of SiQDs in future multimodal applications such as tumour imaging.

Imaging inflammation: molecular strategies to visualize key components of the inflammatory cascade, from initiation to resolution

Dysregulation of inflammation is central to the pathogenesis of innumerable human diseases. Understanding and tracking the critical events in inflammation are crucial for disease monitoring and pharmacological drug discovery and development. Recent progress in molecular imaging has provided novel insights into spatial associations, molecular events and temporal sequelae in the inflammatory process. While remaining a burgeoning field in pre-clinical research, increasing application in man affords researchers the opportunity to study disease pathogenesis in humans in situ thereby revolutionizing conventional understanding of pathophysiology and potential therapeutic targets. This review provides a description of commonly used molecular imaging modalities, including optical, radionuclide and magnetic resonance imaging, and details key advances and translational opportunities in imaging inflammation from initiation to resolution.

Hyaluronic acid/poly(β-amino ester) polymer nanogels for cancer-cell-specific NIR fluorescence switch

Cancer-cell-specific pH-activatable polymer nanogels consisting of CD44-receptor-targeting hyaluronic acid (HA), pH-sensitive poly(β-amino ester) (PBAE), and near-infrared (NIR) fluorescent indocyanine green (ICG) were synthesized and used to detect cancer cells. The HA/PBAE/ICG-polymer-nanogel-based NIR probe was nonfluorescent outside of tumor cells. After internalization by CD44-receptor-mediated endocytosis, the probe accumulated in the late endosomes or lysosomes where the acidic pH solubilized the PBAE and caused instant disassembly of the polymer nanogel. During endosomal maturation, the encapsulated ICG was released from its quenched state, inducing strong NIR fluorescence recovery. The nanogels generate a highly tumor-specific NIR signal with a reduced background signal.

Hybrid magnetic nanostructures (MNS) for magnetic resonance imaging applications

The development of MRI contrast agents has experienced its version of the gilded age over the past decade, thanks largely to the rapid advances in nanotechnology. In addition to progress in single mode contrast agents, which ushered in unprecedented R(1) or R(2) sensitivities, there has also been a boon in the development of agents covering more than one mode of detection. These include T(1)-PET, T(2)-PET T(1)-optical, T(2)-optical, T(1)-T(2) agents and many others. In this review, we describe four areas which we feel have experienced particular growth due to nanotechnology, specifically T(2) magnetic nanostructure development, T(1)/T(2)-optical dual mode agents, and most recently the T(1)-T(2) hybrid imaging systems. In each of these systems, we describe applications including in vitro, in vivo usage and assay development. In all, while the benefits and drawbacks of most MRI contrast agents depend on the application at hand, the recent development in multimodal nanohybrids may curtail the shortcomings of single mode agents in diagnostic and clinical settings by synergistically incorporating functionality. It is hoped that as nanotechnology advances over the next decade, it will produce agents with increased diagnostics and assay relevant capabilities in streamlined packages that can meaningfully improve patient care and prognostics. In this review article, we focus on T(2) materials, its surface functionalization and coupling with optical and/or T(1) agents.

Cell-permeable Ln(III) chelate-functionalized InP quantum dots as multimodal imaging agents

Quantum dots (QDs) are ideal scaffolds for the development of multimodal imaging agents, but their application in clinical diagnostics is limited by the toxicity of classical CdSe QDs. A new bimodal MRI/optical nanosized contrast agent with high gadolinium payload has been prepared through direct covalent attachment of up to 80 Gd(III) chelates on fluorescent nontoxic InP/ZnS QDs. It shows a high relaxivity of 900 mM(-1) s(-1) (13 mM(-1 )s(-1) per Gd ion) at 35 MHz (0.81 T) and 298 K, while the bright luminescence of the QDs is preserved. Eu(III) and Tb(III) chelates were also successfully grafted to the InP/ZnS QDs. The absence of energy transfer between the QD and lanthanide emitting centers results in a multicolor system. Using this convenient direct grafting strategy additional targeting ligands can be included on the QD. Here a cell-penetrating peptide has been co-grafted in a one-pot reaction to afford a cell-permeable multimodal multimeric MRI contrast agent that reports cellular localization by fluorescence and provides high relaxivity and increased tissue retention with respect to commercial contrast agents.

Molecular targeting of atherosclerotic plaques by a stabilin-2-specific peptide ligand

Many cells, including macrophages, accumulate in atherosclerotic lesions, destabilizing plaques and driving plaque disruption. Therefore, macrophages serve as useful targets for atherosclerosis treatment and imaging. Stabilin-2 is a transmembrane protein expressed predominantly in macrophages and endothelial cells. In the present study, we found that stabilin-2 was widely expressed in atherosclerotic plaques than in normal vessel walls, and was present not only in macrophages but also in endothelial and smooth muscle cells in plaques. We used phage display technology to identify peptides that specifically bound to stabilin-2. After four rounds of selection, the most commonly isolated peptide had the sequence CRTLTVRKC, and was named S2P. We confirmed that this peptide specifically bound to stabilin-2-expressing cells in vitro and sinus endothelial cells in the spleen and lymph nodes in vivo. A FITC-conjugated synthetic CRTLTVRKC peptide was shown to home to atherosclerotic plaques in Ldlr-/- mice and to co-localize with endothelial cells, macrophages, and smooth muscle cells in such plaques. S2P conjugated to hydrophobically modified glycol chitosan nanoparticles was efficiently delivered to atherosclerotic plaques. These results show that the CRLTLTVRKC peptide homes to plaques by targeting stabilin-2; the peptide shows promise as a drug delivery moiety for, and an aid to molecular imaging of, atherosclerosis and other inflammatory diseases.

Blood clearance and tissue distribution of PEGylated and non-PEGylated gold nanorods after intravenous administration in rats

AIMS

To develop and determine the safety of gold nanorods, whose aspect ratios can be tuned to obtain plasmon peaks between 650 and 850 nm, as contrast enhancing agents for diagnostic and therapeutic applications.

MATERIALS & METHODS

In this study we compared the blood clearance and tissue distribution of cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB)-capped and polyethylene glycol (PEG)-coated gold nanorods after intravenous injection in the tail vein of rats. The gold content in blood and various organs was measured quantitatively with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry.

RESULTS & DISCUSSION

The CTAB-capped gold nanorods were almost immediately (< 15 min) cleared from the blood circulation whereas the PEGylation of gold nanorods resulted in a prolonged blood circulation with a half-life time of 19 h and more wide spread tissue distribution. While for the CTAB-capped gold nanorods the tissue distribution was limited to liver, spleen and lung, the PEGylated gold nanorods also distributed to kidney, heart, thymus, brain and testes. PEGylation of the gold nanorods resulted in the spleen being the organ with the highest exposure, whereas for the non-PEGylated CTAB-capped gold nanorods the liver was the organ with the highest exposure, per gram of organ.

CONCLUSION

The PEGylation of gold nanorods resulted in a prolongation of the blood clearance and the highest organ exposure in the spleen. In view of the time frame (up to 48 h) of the observed presence in blood circulation, PEGylated gold nanorods can be considered to be promising candidates for therapeutic and diagnostic imaging purposes.

Inorganic-organic hybrid nanomaterials for therapeutic and diagnostic imaging applications

Nanotechnology offers outstanding potential for future biomedical applications. In particular, due to their unique characteristics, hybrid nanomaterials have recently been investigated as promising platforms for imaging and therapeutic applications. This class of nanoparticles can not only retain valuable features of both inorganic and organic moieties, but also provides the ability to systematically modify the properties of the hybrid material through the combination of functional elements. Moreover, the conjugation of targeting moieties on the surface of these nanomaterials gives them specific targeted imaging and therapeutic properties. In this review, we summarize the recent reports in the synthesis of hybrid nanomaterials and their applications in biomedical areas. Their applications as imaging and therapeutic agents in vivo will be highlighted.

Rational chemical design of the next generation of molecular imaging probes based on physics and biology: mixing modalities, colors and signals

In recent years, numerous in vivo molecular imaging probes have been developed. As a consequence, much has been published on the design and synthesis of molecular imaging probes focusing on each modality, each type of material, or each target disease. More recently, second generation molecular imaging probes with unique, multi-functional, or multiplexed characteristics have been designed. This critical review focuses on (i) molecular imaging using combinations of modalities and signals that employ the full range of the electromagnetic spectra, (ii) optimized chemical design of molecular imaging probes for in vivo kinetics based on biology and physiology across a range of physical sizes, (iii) practical examples of second generation molecular imaging probes designed to extract complementary data from targets using multiple modalities, color, and comprehensive signals (277 references).

Synthesis and cell uptake of a novel dualmodality (188)Re-HGRGD (D) F-CdTe QDs probe

A novel dualmodality probe was prepared by linking (188)Re-HGRGD (D) F with CdTe QDs, which was monitored using radio-thin layer chromatography (TLC) and -high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The (188)Re-HGRGD (D) F-CdTe QDs probe possesses a radiochemistry yield of 92.1% and strong photoluminescence (PL) stability. However, the radiochemical purity of (188)Re-HGRGD (D) F-QDs would reduce to 74.8%, which should be further improved, after incubation with newborn calf serum (NCF) for 24h. Human glioblastoma U87MG cells, known to express a high-affinity to RGD, were used to assess the in vitro cell binding of probe. The results showed that the radio-signal was in accord with the change of PL intensity, which meant the successful integration of (188)Re and QDs.

Nanomedicine approaches in vascular disease: a review

Nanomedicine approaches have revolutionized the treatment of cancer and vascular diseases, where the limitations of rapid nonspecific clearance, poor biodistribution and harmful side effects associated with direct systemic drug administration can be overcome by packaging the agents within sterically stabilized, long-circulating nanovehicles that can be further surface-modified with ligands to actively target cellular/molecular components of the disease. With significant advancements in genetics, proteomics, cellular and molecular biology and biomaterials engineering, the nanomedicine strategies have become progressively refined regarding the modulation of surface and bulk chemistry of the nanovehicles, control of drug release kinetics, manipulation of nanoconstruct geometry and integration of multiple functionalities on single nanoplatforms. The current review aims to capture the various nanomedicine approaches directed specifically toward vascular diseases during the past two decades. Analysis of the promises and limitations of these approaches will help identify and optimize vascular nanomedicine systems to enhance their efficacy and clinical translation in the future.

FROM THE CLINICAL EDITOR

Nanomedicine-based approaches have had a major impact on the treatment and diagnosis of malignancies and vascular diseases. This review discusses various nanomedicine approaches directed specifically toward vascular diseases during the past two decades, highlighting their advantages, limitations and offering new perspectives on future applications.

Imaging fibrin formation and platelet and endothelial cell activation in vivo

Over the past six decades research employing in vitro assays has identified enzymes, cofactors, cell receptors and associated ligands important to the haemostatic process and its regulation. These studies have greatly advanced our understanding of the molecular and cellular bases of haemostasis and thrombosis. However, in vitro assays cannot simultaneously reproduce the interactions of all of the components of the haemostatic process that occur in vivo nor do they reflect the importance of haemodynamic factors resulting from blood flow. To overcome these limitations investigators have increasingly turned to animal models of haemostasis and thrombosis. In this article we describe some advances in the visualisation of platelet and endothelial cell activation and blood coagulation in vivo and review what we have learned from our intravital microscopy experiments using primarily the laser-induced injury model for thrombosis.