Self-organization of nanorods into ultra-long range two-dimensional monolayer end-to-end network

Highly Luminescent Shell-Less Indium Phosphide Quantum Dots Enabled by Atomistically Tailored Surface States

Contrary to the prevailing notion that shell structures arise from the intricate chemistry and surface defects of InP quantum dots (QDs), an innovative strategy that remarkably enhances the luminescence efficiency of core-only InP QDs to over 90% is introduced. This paradigm shift is achieved through the concurrent utilization of group 2 and 3 metal-derived ligands, providing an effective remedy for surface defects and facilitating charge recombination. Specifically, a combination of Zn carboxylate and Ga chloride is employed to address the undercoordination issues associated with In and P atoms, leading to the alleviation of in-gap trap states. The intricate interplay and proportional ratio between Ga- and Zn-containing ligands play pivotal roles in attaining record-high luminescence efficiency in core-only InP QDs, as successfully demonstrated across various sizes and color emissions. Moreover, the fabrication of electroluminescent devices relying solely on InP core emission opens a new direction in optoelectronics, demonstrating the potential of the approach not only in optoelectronic applications but also in catalysis or energy conversion by charge transfer.

Cyanamide Passivation Enables Robust Elemental Imaging of Metal Halide Perovskites at Atomic Resolution

Lead halide perovskites (LHPs) have attracted a tremendous amount of attention because of their applications in solar cells, lighting, and optoelectronics. However, the atomistic principles underlying their decomposition processes remain in large part obscure, likely due to the lack of precise information about their local structures and composition along regions with dimensions on the angstrom scale, such as crystal interfaces. Aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron microscopy combined with X-ray energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) is an ideal tool, in principle, for probing such information. However, atomic-resolution EDS has not been achieved for LHPs because of their instability under electron-beam irradiation. We report the fabrication of CsPbBr₃ nanoplates with high beam stability through an interface-assisted regrowth strategy using cyanamide. The ultrahigh stability of the nanoplates primarily stems from two contributions: defect-healing self-assembly/regrowth processes and surface modulation by strong electron-withdrawing cyanamide molecules. The ultrahigh stability of as-prepared CsPbBr₃ nanoplates enabled atomic-resolution EDS elemental mapping, which revealed atomically and elementally resolved details of the LHP nanostructures at an unprecedented level. While improving the stability of LHPs is critical for device applications, this work illustrates how improving the beam stability of LHPs is essential for addressing fundamental questions on structure-property relations in LHPs.

Surface Ligands as Permeation Barrier in the Growth and Assembly of Anisotropic Semiconductor Nanocrystals

Because of the large surface-to-volume ratio of colloidal nanocrystals (NCs), surfactant molecules grafted at the NC surface play an important role in NC growth, interparticle interaction, processing, and application. For this reason, much progress has been made in understanding the surface chemistry of NCs along with the organic ligand shell, particularly in terms of grafted polar groups. However, most explanations of aliphatic counterparts are based on spherical NCs that usually have a dilute ligand layer. In anisotropic NCs such as nanorods and nanoplatelets, the linearly extended dimension results in a high-density aliphatic layer on the NC surface. Unlike spherical NCs, the compact organic shell could serve as a permeation membrane, effectively impeding a penetration of foreign molecules toward the NC surface. In this Perspective, we highlight the effects of ligand configuration on the properties of anisotropic NCs by exploring morphologies, assembled superstructures, and surface reaction of anisotropic NCs.

Hierarchical assembly of gold nanorod stripe patterns for sensing and cells alignment

Hierarchical assemblies of nanomaterial superstructures with controlled orientation affords a multitude of novel properties of plasmonics and broad applications. Yet constructing multi-functional superstructures with nanoparticles positioned in desired locations remains challenging. Herein, gold nanorods (GNRs) assembled in stripe patterns with controlled orientation and structures in millimeter scale for versatile application have been achieved. Applications of patterned GNRs in sensing enhancement and engineering mammalian cells alignment are investigated experimentally. The performance of patterned GNRs in surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) and electrical sensing are found in orientational dependence. The SERS signals of vertically arranged GNR arrays exhibit double the folder intensity than those horizontally arranged. In contrast, the horizontally arranged GNRs exhibit twice as much electrical conductivity. The system is further explored to pattern mammalian cells. For the first time, we reveal the nanostructured topography of GNR confined cells to a specific region, and direct the adhesion and extension of living cells, which opens up broad applications in tissue engineering and biosensing.

Depletion-Mediated Interfacial Assembly of Semiconductor Nanorods

Electronic devices comprised of nanocrystal (NC) thin film are projected to demonstrate enhanced figure of merit if NC building blocks self-assemble into highly uniform, 2-dimensional (2-D) superstructures with long-range order. Despite intensive research efforts and remarkable progress, long-range assembly of colloidal anisotropic NCs into thin films with orientational and positional order has remained to be addressed. One of the most promising approaches is to dissolve excess free molecules into NC solution, which has enabled the formation of NC monolayers with exceptional quality at air/solution interface. Nevertheless, the assembly mechanism and the role of free molecules have not been comprehensively elucidated, restricting the use of the approach. Here, we find that the interfacial assembly of CdSe/CdS core/shell nanorods (NRs) results in various ordered structures in the presence of free oleic acid molecules. The structures include a bundle of standing NRs, a belt of multilayered lying NRs, and a monolayer smectic phase, obtained by simple change in density of surface ligands on the NRs. Experimental observation and theoretical calculation reveal that the assembly is initiated at the air/solution interface due to the preferential depletion attraction of NRs to the interface. However, subsequent growth is significantly altered depending on the ligand density that determines the relative magnitude of interface-NR depletion attraction to inter-NR attraction. Highly ordered structures of NRs, especially for the monolayer smectic phase, are promising as a polarized light-emitting layer for thin-film optical devices. In addition, our findings on the depletion-mediated NR assembly provide important and universal design criteria for 2-D structuring of NCs with diverse geometries and compositions.

The Many "Facets" of Halide Ions in the Chemistry of Colloidal Inorganic Nanocrystals

Over the years, scientists have identified various synthetic "handles" while developing wet chemical protocols for achieving a high level of shape and compositional complexity in colloidal nanomaterials. Halide ions have emerged as one such handle which serve as important surface active species that regulate nanocrystal (NC) growth and concomitant physicochemical properties. Halide ions affect the NC growth kinetics through several means, including selective binding on crystal facets, complexation with the precursors, and oxidative etching. On the other hand, their presence on the surfaces of semiconducting NCs stimulates interesting changes in the intrinsic electronic structure and interparticle communication in the NC solids eventually assembled from them. Then again, halide ions also induce optoelectronic tunability in NCs where they form part of the core, through sheer composition variation. In this review, we describe these roles of halide ions in the growth of nanostructures and the physical changes introduced by them and thereafter demonstrate the commonality of these effects across different classes of nanomaterials.

Colloidal Dual-Diameter and Core-Position-Controlled Core/Shell Cadmium Chalcogenide Nanorods

To capitalize on shape- and structure-dependent properties of semiconductor nanorods (NRs), high-precision control and exquisite design of their growth are desired. Cadmium chalcogenide (CdE; E = S or Se) NRs are the most studied class of such, whose growth exhibits axial anisotropy, i.e., different growth rates along the opposite directions of {0001} planes. However, the mechanism behind asymmetric axial growth of NRs remains unclear because of the difficulty in instant analysis of growth surfaces. Here, we design colloidal dual-diameter semiconductor NRs (DDNRs) under the quantum confinement regime, which have two sections along the long axis with different diameters. The segmentation of the DDNRs allows rigorous assessment of the kinetics of NR growth at a molecular level. The reactivity of a terminal facet passivated by an organic ligand is governed by monomer diffusivity through the surface ligand monolayer. Therefore, the growth rate in two polar directions can be finely tuned by controlling the strength of ligand-ligand attraction at end surfaces. Building on these findings, we report the synthesis of single-diameter CdSe/CdS core/shell NRs with CdSe cores of controllable position, which reveals a strong structure-optical polarization relationship. The understanding of the NR growth mechanism with controllable anisotropy will serve as a cornerstone for the exquisite design of more complex anisotropic nanostructures.

Programmed Self-Assembly of Branched Nanocrystals with an Amphiphilic Surface Pattern

Site-selective surface modification on the shape-controlled nanocrystals is a key approach in the programmed self-assembly of inorganic colloidal materials. This study demonstrates a simple methodology to gain self-assemblies of semiconductor nanocrystals with branched shapes through tip-to-tip attachment. Short-chained water-soluble cationic thiols are employed as a surface ligand for CdSe tetrapods and CdSe/CdS core/shell octapods. Because of the less affinity of arm-tip to the surface ligands compared to the arm-side wall, the tip-surface becomes uncapped to give a hydrophobic nature, affording an amphiphilic surface pattern. The amphiphilic tetrapods aggregated into porous agglomerates through tip-to-tip connection in water, while they afforded a hexagonally arranged Kagome-like two-dimensional (2D) assembly by the simple casting of aqueous dispersion with the aid of a convective self-assembly mechanism. A 2D net-like assembly was similarly obtained from amphiphilic octapods. A dissipative particle dynamics simulation using a planar tripod model with an amphiphilic surface pattern reproduced the formation of the Kagome-like assembly in a 2D confined space, demonstrating that the lateral diffusion of nanoparticles and the firm contacts between the hydrophobic tips play crucial roles in the self-assembly.

Facet-to-facet Linking of Shape-anisotropic Colloidal Cadmium Chalcogenide Nanostructures

Here, we describe a protocol that allows for shape-anisotropic cadmium chalcogenide nanocrystals (NCs), such as nanorods (NRs) and tetrapods (TPs), to be covalently and site-specifically linked via their end facets, resulting in polymer-like linear or branched chains. The linking procedure begins with a cation-exchange process in which the end facets of the cadmium chalcogenide NCs are first converted to silver chalcogenide. This is followed by the selective removal of ligands at their surface. This results in cadmium chalcogenide NCs with highly reactive silver chalcogenide end facets that spontaneously fuse upon contact with each other, thereby establishing an interparticle facet-to-facet attachment. Through the judicious choice of precursor concentrations, an extensive network of linked NCs can be produced. Structural characterization of the linked NCs is carried out via low- and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (TEM), as well as energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, which confirm the presence of silver chalcogenide domains between chains of cadmium chalcogenide NCs.

Shape-Induced Deformation, Capillary Bridging, and Self-Assembly of Cuboids at the Fluid-Fluid Interface

The controlled assembly of anisotropic particles through shape-induced interface deformations is shown to be a potential route for the fabrication of novel functional materials. In this article, the shape-induced interface deformation, capillary bridging, and directed self-assembly of cuboidal-shaped hematite particles at fluid-fluid interfaces are reported. The multipolar nature of the interface distortions is directly visualized using high-resolution scanning electron microscopy and 3D optical surface profiling. The nature of the interface deformations around cuboidal particles vary from monopolar to octupolar types depending on their orientation and position with respect to the interface. The deformations are of either hexapolar or octupolar type in the face-up orientation, quadrupolar or monopolar type in the edge-up orientation, and monopolar type in the vertex-up orientation. The particles adsorbed at the interface interact through the interface deformations, forming capillary bridges that lead to isolated assemblies of two or more particles. The arrangement of particles in any assembly is such that the condition for capillary attraction is satisfied, that is, in accordance with predictions based on the nature of interface deformations. At sufficient particle concentrations, these isolated structures interact to form a percolating network of cuboids. Furthermore, the difference in the nature of the assembly structures formed at the air-water interface and in the bulk water phase indicates that the interfacial assembly of these particles is controlled by the capillary interactions.

Amphiphilic-Polymer-Guided Plasmonic Assemblies and Their Biomedical Applications

Plasmonic nanostructures with unique physical and biological properties have attracted increased attention for potential biomedical applications. Polymers grafted on metal nanoparticle surface can be used as assembly regulating molecules to guide nanoparticles organize into ordered or hierarchical structures in solution, within condensed phases, or at interfaces. In this Topical Review, we will highlight recent efforts on self-assembly of gold nanoparticles coated with polymer brushes. How and what kind of polymer graft can be used to adjust nanoparticle interactions, to dictate interparticle orientation, and to determine assembled nanostructures will be discussed. Furthermore, the Topical Review will shed light on the physicochemical properties, including self-assembly behavior and kinetics, tunable localized surface plasmon resonance effect, enhanced surface enhanced Raman scattering, and other optical and thermal properties. The potential of self-assembled nanostructures for applications in different fields, especially in biomedicine, will also be elaborated.

Directed self-assembly of inorganic nanoparticles at air/liquid interfaces

Inorganic nanoparticles (NPs) appear as the forefront functional structure in nanotechnology. The preparation of functional materials based on inorganic NPs requires their assembly onto well-defined structures. Within this context, self-assembly at air-liquid interfaces is probably the best candidate for a universal procedure for active materials composed of assembled NPs. The detailed in situ mechanism of the lateral self-assembly and vertical organization of NPs at air-liquid interfaces is still unknown despite its extended use. The most common and promising methods for addressing this open issue are reviewed herein. The self-assembled films can be used in situ or further be transferred to solid substrates as the main constituents of novel functional materials. Plasmonic NPs at interfaces are highly interesting, given the broad range of applications of the plasmonic field, and will be discussed more in detail.

Biaxial nematic phase stability and demixing behaviour in monolayers of rod-plate mixtures

We theoretically study the phase behaviour of monolayers of hard rod-plate mixtures using a fundamental-measure density functional in the restricted-orientation (Zwanzig) approximation. Particles can rotate in 3D but their centres of mass are constrained to be on a flat surface. In addition, we consider both species to be subject to an attractive potential proportional to the particle contact area on the surface and with adsorption strengths that depend on the species type. Particles have board-like shape, with sizes chosen using a symmetry criterion: same volume and same aspect ratio κ. Phase diagrams were calculated for κ = 10, 20 and 40 and different values of adsorption strengths. For small adsorption strengths the mixtures exhibit a second-order uniaxial nematic-biaxial nematic transition for molar fraction of rods 0 ≤x≲ 0.9. In the uniaxial nematic phase the particle axes of rods and plates are aligned perpendicular and parallel to the monolayer, respectively. At the transition, the orientational symmetry of the plate axes is broken, and they orient parallel to a director lying on the surface. For large and equal adsorption strengths the mixture demixes at low pressures into a uniaxial nematic phase, rich in plates, and a biaxial nematic phase, rich in rods. The demixing transition is located between two tricritical points. Also, at higher pressures and in the plate-rich part of the phase diagram, the system exhibits a strong first-order uniaxial nematic-biaxial nematic phase transition with a large density coexistence gap. When rod adsorption is considerably large while that of plates is small, the transition to the biaxial nematic phase is always of second order, and its region of stability in the phase diagram considerably widens. At very high pressures the mixture can effectively be identified as a two-dimensional mixture of squares and rectangles which again demixes above a certain critical point. We also studied the relative stability of uniform phases with respect to density modulations of smectic, columnar and crystalline symmetry.

Orientation-Selective Alignments of Hydroxyapatite Nanoblocks through Epitaxial Attachment in a and c Directions

Nanometric rods of hydroxyapatite (HA) were aligned in selective crystallographic directions by the alternation of adsorbing molecules. The side and end faces of HA nanorods elongated in the c direction were covered with oleic acid (OA) and tetraoctylammonium (TOA) ions, respectively. Alignment in the c direction of the OA-modified nanorods was produced through epitaxial attachment of the bare end faces in toluene because the side faces were hydrophobized with the negatively charged modifier. Another alignment-in the a direction of the TOA-modified HA nanorods-was obtained through the epitaxial attachment of the bare side faces in ethanol due to stabilization of the end faces with the positively charged modifier. Controlled alignments of the nanorods in the a and c directions were achieved through oriented attachment with the selective coverage of the c and a faces with the specific modifiers.

Strong plasmon coupling in self-assembled superparamagnetic nanoshell chains

Construction of ordered patterns of plasmonic nanoparticles is greatly important for nanophotonics relevant applications. We have reported a facile and low-cost magnetic field induced self-assembly approach to construct plasmonic superparamagnetic nanoshell (SN) chains up to several hundred micrometers in a few seconds in a large area without templates or other assistance processes. Experimental and theoretical investigations of the near- and far-field optical properties indicate that the super- and sub-radiant modes of the SN chains continuously redshift with the increase of SN number and the Fano resonance emerges in the infinite double- and triple-line SN chains. Strong plasmon coupling effects in the SN chains result in great electric field enhancements at visible and infrared wavelengths, which indicates that these chain structures potentially can be used as a common substrate for both surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) and surface-enhanced infrared absorption (SEIRA) application. This fabrication method also offers a general strategy alternative to top-down processing that enables the construction of nanostructures for metamaterials, electromagnetic energy transport, and optical waveguide.

End-to-End Self-Assembly of Semiconductor Nanorods in Water by Using an Amphiphilic Surface Design

One-dimensional (1D) self-assemblies of nanocrystals are of interest because of their vectorial and polymer-like dynamic properties. Herein, we report a simple method to prepare elongated assemblies of semiconductor nanorods (NRs) through end-to-end self-assembly. Short-chained water-soluble thiols were employed as surface ligands for CdSe NRs having a wurtzite crystal structure. The site-specific capping of NRs with these ligands rendered the surface of the NRs amphiphilic. The amphiphilic CdSe NRs self-assembled to form elongated wires by end-to-end attachment driven by the hydrophobic effect operating between uncapped NR ends. The end-to-end assembly technique was further applied to CdS NRs and CdSe tetrapods (TPs) with a wurtzite structure.

Orientation-selective alignments of nanoblocks in a and c directions of a tetragonal system through molecularly mediated manipulation

Selective 1D alignments of nanometric Mn₃O₄ cuboids in the a and c directions were achieved on the basis of the hydrophobic–hydrophilic interaction between a single dispersion medium and the specific crystal faces.

Pickering emulsions stabilized by shape-controlled silica microrods

Silica microrods with varying aspect ratios but similar surface characteristics are synthesized and their potential in preparing stable oil-in-water Pickering emulsions are explored.

Directional supracolloidal self-assembly via dynamic covalent bonds and metal coordination

An emerging strategy towards the sophistication of supramolecular nanomaterials is the use of supracolloidal self-assembly, in which micelles or colloids are used as building blocks. Binding directionality can produce nanostructures with attractive properties. Herein, we present a new directional supracolloidal self-assembly by virtue of dynamic covalent bonds and metal coordination in water. Conjugation of a ligand precursor to a water-soluble block copolymer through dynamic covalent bonds leads to the dehydration and micellization of the functionalized polymer. Reversible reaction facilitates the permeation of metal ions into core-shell interfaces. Conversely, metal-coordination promotes reaction over the interfaces. Cu(ii)-coordination occurs overwhelmingly inside each isolated micelle. However, Zn(ii)-coordination induced a directional self-assembly whose nanostructures evolve stepwise from nanorods, nanowires, necklaces, and finally to supracolloidal networks scaling-up to several tens of micrometres. Post-reactions of simultaneous dynamic covalent bond conversion and Zn(ii)-coordination over the core-shell interfaces endow these supracolloidal networks with a huge specific surface area for hydrophobic dative metal centres accessible to substrates in water. Water-soluble shells play important roles in directional supracolloidal assembly and in the stabilization of nanostructures. Thus the directional self-assembly provides a versatile platform to produce metallo-hybridized nanomaterials that are promising as enzyme-inspired aqueous catalysts.

Directed self-assembly of end-functionalized nanofibers: from percolated networks to liquid crystal-like phases

We explore the directed self-assembly (DSA) process of end-functionalized nanofibers (NFs) by performing coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations. We find that by tuning their interactions, NFs aggregate and self-organize into networks with specific topologies ranging from percolated networks to liquid crystal-like long-chain phases. The underlying mechanism is explained through an analytical model from a minimum energy perspective. In addition to offering microscopic understandings of the DSA process, the findings reported here can also guide robust target-specified design of nanofibrous materials into organized network structures.

Self-assembly of nano-ellipsoids into ordered structures via vertical deposition

By exploiting DLVO interactions, we demonstrate a single step bottom-up approach to self-assemble nano-ellipsoids into three dimensional ordered structures via a vertical deposition technique.

Uniform decoration of Pt nanoparticles on well-defined CdSe tetrapods and the effect of their Pt cluster size on photocatalytic H2generation

Direct decoration of Pt nanoparticles onto CdSe tetrapods with controlled sizes and their photocatalytic H₂generation efficiency.