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Salam AM, Porras G, Cho YSK, Brown MM, Risener CJ, Marquez L, Lyles JT, Bacsa J, Horswill AR, Quave CL. Castaneroxy A From the Leaves of Castanea sativa Inhibits Virulence in Staphylococcus aureus. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:640179. [PMID: 34262448 PMCID: PMC8274328 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.640179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) represents one of the most serious infectious disease concerns worldwide, with the CDC labeling it a "serious threat" in 2019. The current arsenal of antibiotics works by targeting bacterial growth and survival, which exerts great selective pressure for the development of resistance. The development of novel anti-infectives that inhibit quorum sensing and thus virulence in MRSA has been recurrently proposed as a promising therapeutic approach. In a follow-up of a study examining the MRSA quorum sensing inhibitory activity of extracts of Italian plants used in local traditional medicine, 224C-F2 was reported as a bioactive fraction of a Castanea sativa (European chestnut) leaf extract. The fraction demonstrated high activity in vitro and effective attenuation of MRSA pathogenicity in a mouse model of skin infection. Through further bioassay-guided fractionation using reverse-phase high performance liquid chromatography, a novel hydroperoxy cycloartane triterpenoid, castaneroxy A (1), was isolated. Its structure was established by nuclear magnetic resonance, mass spectrometry and X-ray diffraction analyses. Isomers of 1 were also detected in an adjacent fraction. In a series of assays assessing inhibition of markers of MRSA virulence, 1 exerted activities in the low micromolar range. It inhibited agr::P3 activation (IC50 = 31.72 µM), δ-toxin production (IC50 = 31.72 µM in NRS385), supernatant cytotoxicity to HaCaT human keratinocytes (IC50 = 7.93 µM in NRS385), and rabbit erythrocyte hemolytic activity (IC50 = 7.93 µM in LAC). Compound 1 did not inhibit biofilm production, and at high concentrations it exerted cytotoxicity against human keratinocytes greater than that of 224C-F2. Finally, 1 reduced dermonecrosis in a murine model of MRSA infection. The results establish 1 as a promising antivirulence candidate for development against MRSA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akram M Salam
- Program in Molecular and Systems Pharmacology, Laney Graduate School, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Gina Porras
- Center for the Study of Human Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Young-Saeng K Cho
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Morgan M Brown
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Caitlin J Risener
- Program in Molecular and Systems Pharmacology, Laney Graduate School, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Lewis Marquez
- Program in Molecular and Systems Pharmacology, Laney Graduate School, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - James T Lyles
- Center for the Study of Human Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - John Bacsa
- Department of Chemistry, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Alexander R Horswill
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Cassandra L Quave
- Center for the Study of Human Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States.,Department of Dermatology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States.,Antibiotic Resistance Center, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
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2
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Pereira AG, Fraga-Corral M, Garcia-Oliveira P, Lourenço-Lopes C, Carpena M, Prieto MA, Simal-Gandara J. The Use of Invasive Algae Species as a Source of Secondary Metabolites and Biological Activities: Spain as Case-Study. Mar Drugs 2021; 19:178. [PMID: 33805184 PMCID: PMC8064379 DOI: 10.3390/md19040178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2021] [Revised: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
In the recent decades, algae have proven to be a source of different bioactive compounds with biological activities, which has increased the potential application of these organisms in food, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, animal feed, and other industrial sectors. On the other hand, there is a growing interest in developing effective strategies for control and/or eradication of invasive algae since they have a negative impact on marine ecosystems and in the economy of the affected zones. However, the application of control measures is usually time and resource-consuming and not profitable. Considering this context, the valorization of invasive algae species as a source of bioactive compounds for industrial applications could be a suitable strategy to reduce their population, obtaining both environmental and economic benefits. To carry out this practice, it is necessary to evaluate the chemical and the nutritional composition of the algae as well as the most efficient methods of extracting the compounds of interest. In the case of northwest Spain, five algae species are considered invasive: Asparagopsis armata, Codium fragile, Gracilaria vermiculophylla, Sargassum muticum, and Grateulopia turuturu. This review presents a brief description of their main bioactive compounds, biological activities, and extraction systems employed for their recovery. In addition, evidence of their beneficial properties and the possibility of use them as supplement in diets of aquaculture animals was collected to illustrate one of their possible applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antia G. Pereira
- Nutrition and Bromatology Group, Department of Analytical and Food Chemistry, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Vigo, Ourense Campus, E32004 Ourense, Spain; (A.G.P.); (M.F.-C.); (P.G.-O.); (C.L.-L.); (M.C.)
- Centro de Investigação de Montanha (CIMO), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolonia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal
| | - Maria Fraga-Corral
- Nutrition and Bromatology Group, Department of Analytical and Food Chemistry, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Vigo, Ourense Campus, E32004 Ourense, Spain; (A.G.P.); (M.F.-C.); (P.G.-O.); (C.L.-L.); (M.C.)
- Centro de Investigação de Montanha (CIMO), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolonia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal
| | - Paula Garcia-Oliveira
- Nutrition and Bromatology Group, Department of Analytical and Food Chemistry, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Vigo, Ourense Campus, E32004 Ourense, Spain; (A.G.P.); (M.F.-C.); (P.G.-O.); (C.L.-L.); (M.C.)
- Centro de Investigação de Montanha (CIMO), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolonia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal
| | - Catarina Lourenço-Lopes
- Nutrition and Bromatology Group, Department of Analytical and Food Chemistry, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Vigo, Ourense Campus, E32004 Ourense, Spain; (A.G.P.); (M.F.-C.); (P.G.-O.); (C.L.-L.); (M.C.)
| | - Maria Carpena
- Nutrition and Bromatology Group, Department of Analytical and Food Chemistry, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Vigo, Ourense Campus, E32004 Ourense, Spain; (A.G.P.); (M.F.-C.); (P.G.-O.); (C.L.-L.); (M.C.)
| | - Miguel A. Prieto
- Nutrition and Bromatology Group, Department of Analytical and Food Chemistry, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Vigo, Ourense Campus, E32004 Ourense, Spain; (A.G.P.); (M.F.-C.); (P.G.-O.); (C.L.-L.); (M.C.)
- Centro de Investigação de Montanha (CIMO), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Campus de Santa Apolonia, 5300-253 Bragança, Portugal
| | - Jesus Simal-Gandara
- Nutrition and Bromatology Group, Department of Analytical and Food Chemistry, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, University of Vigo, Ourense Campus, E32004 Ourense, Spain; (A.G.P.); (M.F.-C.); (P.G.-O.); (C.L.-L.); (M.C.)
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Choi YH, Seo C, Jeong W, Lee JE, Lee JY, Ahn EK, Kang JS, Lee JH, Choi CW, Oh JS, Lee D, Hong SS. Glycopentanolones A-D, four new geranylated quinolone alkaloids from Glycosmis pentaphylla. Bioorg Chem 2019; 87:714-719. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2019.03.069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2018] [Revised: 03/04/2019] [Accepted: 03/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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4
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Meesala S, Gurung P, Karmodiya K, Subrayan P, Watve MG. Isolation and structure elucidation of halymeniaol, a new antimalarial sterol derivative from the red alga Halymenia floresii. JOURNAL OF ASIAN NATURAL PRODUCTS RESEARCH 2018; 20:391-398. [PMID: 28662593 DOI: 10.1080/10286020.2017.1342636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2017] [Accepted: 06/09/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
A new mono-hydroxy acetylated sterol derivative: 12β-hydroxy-3β, 15α, 16β-triacetoxy-cholest-5-en-7-one (halymeniaol) (1), and cholesterol (2) were isolated from the marine red alga Halymenia floresii. The structure of the compound 1 (halymeniaol) was established from its spectral data, derived from HRMS/MS and 2D NMR. Compound 1 exhibited growth inhibitory activity against chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 strain with an IC50 of 3.0 μM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Srinu Meesala
- a Department of Biology , Indian Institute of Science Education and Research , Pune 411008 , India
| | - Pratima Gurung
- a Department of Biology , Indian Institute of Science Education and Research , Pune 411008 , India
| | - Krishanpal Karmodiya
- a Department of Biology , Indian Institute of Science Education and Research , Pune 411008 , India
| | | | - Milind G Watve
- a Department of Biology , Indian Institute of Science Education and Research , Pune 411008 , India
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5
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Viet Ho D, Thi Hoang HN, Quoc Vo H, Minh Nguyen H, Raal A, Thi Nguyen H. A new triterpene ester and other chemical constituents from the aerial parts of Anodendron paniculatum and their cytotoxic activity. JOURNAL OF ASIAN NATURAL PRODUCTS RESEARCH 2018; 20:188-194. [PMID: 28657349 DOI: 10.1080/10286020.2017.1336163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2016] [Accepted: 05/25/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The aim of the research was to study the active constituents of Anodendron paniculatum Roxb. (Apocynaceae). A new triterpene ester, named anopaniester (1), and cycloartenol (2), ursolic acid (3), esculenic acid (4), bis-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (5), desmosterol (6), stigmasterol (7), vaniline (8), and (E)-phytol (9), were isolated from the aerial parts of A. paniculatum. Compounds 3 and 6 showed the significant inhibitory effect (IC50 values ranging from 30.89 ± 3.60 to 44.37 ± 5.40 μg/ml) against tested human cancer cell lines LU-1 and MKN-7. The compounds 1-4, and 6 were isolated from this genus Anodendron for the first time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duc Viet Ho
- a Faculty of Pharmacy , Hue University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Hue University , Hue City 84234 , Vietnam
| | - Hanh Nhu Thi Hoang
- b Faculty of Chemistry , Hue University's College of Sciences , Hue City 84234 , Vietnam
| | - Hung Quoc Vo
- a Faculty of Pharmacy , Hue University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Hue University , Hue City 84234 , Vietnam
| | - Hien Minh Nguyen
- c Institute of Natural Medicine, University of Toyama , Toyama 930-0194 , Japan
| | - Ain Raal
- d Institute of Pharmacy, University of Tartu , Tartu 50411 , Estonia
| | - Hoai Thi Nguyen
- a Faculty of Pharmacy , Hue University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Hue University , Hue City 84234 , Vietnam
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Senthilkumar D, Jayanthi S. Partial characterization and anticancer activities of purified glycoprotein extracted from green seaweed Codium decorticatum. J Funct Foods 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jff.2016.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
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7
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Secondary Metabolites Isolated from the Sea Hare Aplysia pulmonica from the South China Sea. Chem Nat Compd 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s10600-016-1767-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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8
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Lyakhova EG, Kolesnikova SA, Kalinovsky AI, Dmitrenok PS, Nam NH, Stonik VA. Further study on Penares sp. from Vietnamese waters: minor lanostane and nor-lanostane triterpenes. Steroids 2015; 96:37-43. [PMID: 25637679 DOI: 10.1016/j.steroids.2015.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2014] [Revised: 12/03/2014] [Accepted: 01/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Eight new oxidized lanostane and nor-lanostane derivatives (1-8) along with the previously known penasterol (9) and 24-ethylcholesta-4,24(28)-dien-3-one (10) were isolated from a sponge Penares sp. collected from the Vietnamese waters. Structures of these minor compounds were elucidated by the detailed NMR spectroscopic and mass-spectrometric analyses and by comparison with earlier reported spectroscopic data. A hypothetic scheme of metabolism of the lanostane derivatives in sponges belonging to Penares and Erylus genera was proposed and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ekaterina G Lyakhova
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far East Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Pr. 100-let Vladivostoku 159, 690022 Vladivostok, Russia
| | - Sophia A Kolesnikova
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far East Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Pr. 100-let Vladivostoku 159, 690022 Vladivostok, Russia
| | - Anatoly I Kalinovsky
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far East Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Pr. 100-let Vladivostoku 159, 690022 Vladivostok, Russia
| | - Pavel S Dmitrenok
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far East Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Pr. 100-let Vladivostoku 159, 690022 Vladivostok, Russia
| | - Nguyen H Nam
- Institute of Marine Biochemistry, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, 18 Hoang Quoc Viet, Caugiay, Hanoi, Viet Nam
| | - Valentin A Stonik
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far East Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Pr. 100-let Vladivostoku 159, 690022 Vladivostok, Russia.
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9
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Fang HY, Chokkalingam U, Chiou SF, Hwang TL, Chen SL, Wang WL, Sheu JH. Bioactive chemical constituents from the brown alga Homoeostrichus formosana. Int J Mol Sci 2014; 16:736-46. [PMID: 25561228 PMCID: PMC4307272 DOI: 10.3390/ijms16010736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2014] [Accepted: 12/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
A new chromene derivative, 2-(4',8'-dimethylnona-3'E,7'-dienyl)-8-hydroxy-2,6-dimethyl-2H-chromene (1) together with four known natural products, methylfarnesylquinone (2), isololiolide (3), pheophytin a (4), and β-carotene (5) were isolated from the brown alga Homoeostrichus formosana. The structure of 1 was determined by extensive 1D and 2D spectroscopic analyses. Acetylation of 1 yielded the monoacetylated derivative 2-(4',8'-dimethylnona-3'E,7'-dienyl)-8-acetyl-2,6-dimethyl-2H-chromene (6). Compounds 1-6 exhibited various levels of cytotoxic, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory activities. Compound 2 was found to display potent in vitro anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting the generation of superoxide anion (IC50 0.22 ± 0.03 μg/mL) and elastase release (IC50 0.48 ± 0.11 μg/mL) in FMLP/CB-induced human neutrophils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui-Yu Fang
- Department of Marine Biotechnology and Resources, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung 80424, Taiwan.
| | - Uvarani Chokkalingam
- Department of Marine Biotechnology and Resources, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung 80424, Taiwan.
| | - Shu-Fen Chiou
- Department of Marine Biotechnology and Resources, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung 80424, Taiwan.
| | - Tsong-Long Hwang
- Graduate Institute of Natural Products, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan.
| | - Shu-Li Chen
- Graduate Institute of Natural Products, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan.
| | - Wei-Lung Wang
- Department of Biology, National Changhua University of Education, Changhua 50007, Taiwan.
| | - Jyh-Horng Sheu
- Department of Marine Biotechnology and Resources, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung 80424, Taiwan.
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He WF, Yao LG, Liu HL, Guo YW. Thunberol, a new sterol from the Chinese brown alga Sargassum thunbergii. JOURNAL OF ASIAN NATURAL PRODUCTS RESEARCH 2014; 16:685-9. [PMID: 24911542 DOI: 10.1080/10286020.2014.924511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2013] [Accepted: 05/12/2014] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
A new sterol, named thunberol (1), along with four known analogs, 24-ethylcholesta-4,24(28)-dien-3-one (2), stigmasta-5,28-dien-3β-ol (3), cholesta-5,14-dien-3β-ol (4), and cholesta-5,23-dien-3β,25-diol (5), were isolated from the brown alga Sargassum thunbergii collected from East China Sea. The structures of these metabolites were elucidated on the basis of detailed spectroscopic analysis and by comparison with the literature data. Thunberol (1) exhibited significant inhibitory activity against protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B, a potential drug target for the treatment of Type-II diabetes and obesity, with an IC50 value of 2.24 μg/ml.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Fei He
- a School of Pharmacy, Wenzhou Medical University , Wenzhou 325035 , China
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Preventive effect of fermented Gelidium amansii and Cirsium japonicum extract mixture against UVB-induced skin photoaging in hairless mice. Food Sci Biotechnol 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s10068-014-0085-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
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12
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Thangam R, Senthilkumar D, Suresh V, Sathuvan M, Sivasubramanian S, Pazhanichamy K, Gorlagunta PK, Kannan S, Gunasekaran P, Rengasamy R, Sivaraman J. Induction of ROS-dependent mitochondria-mediated intrinsic apoptosis in MDA-MB-231 cells by glycoprotein from Codium decorticatum. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2014; 62:3410-3421. [PMID: 24694116 DOI: 10.1021/jf405329e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Marine macroalgae consist of a range of bioactive molecules exhibiting different biological activities, and many of these properties are attributed to sulfated polysaccharides, fucoxanthin, phycobiliproteins, and halogenated compounds. In this study, a glycoprotein (GLP) with a molecular mass of ∼48 kDa was extracted and purified from Codium decorticatum and investigated for its cytotoxic properties against human MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. The IC₅₀ values of GLP against MDA-MB-231 and normal breast HBL-100 cells (control) were 75 ± 0.23 μg/mL (IC₂₅), 55 ± 0.32 μg/mL (IC₅₀), and 30 ± 0.43 μg/mL (IC₇₅) and 90 ± 0.57 μg/mL (IC₂₅), 80 ± 0.48 μg/mL (IC₅₀), and 60 ± 0.26 μg/mL (IC₇₅), respectively. Chromatin condensation and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) cleavage studies showed that the GLP inhibited cell viability by inducing apoptosis in MDA-MB-231 cells. Induction of mitochondria-mediated intrinsic apoptotic pathway by GLP was evidenced by the events of loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨ(m)), bax/bcl-2 dysregulation, cytochrome c release, and activation of caspases 3 and 9. Apoptosis-associated factors such as reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation and loss of ΔΨ(m) were evaluated by DCFH-DA staining and flow cytometry, respectively. Cell cycle arrest of G₂/M phase and expression of apoptosis associated proteins were determined using flow cytometry and Western blotting, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramar Thangam
- Proteomics and Molecular Cell Physiology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Bharathiar University , Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
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Zhou X, Sun J, Ma W, Fang W, Chen Z, Yang B, Liu Y. Bioactivities of six sterols isolated from marine invertebrates. PHARMACEUTICAL BIOLOGY 2014; 52:187-190. [PMID: 24074030 DOI: 10.3109/13880209.2013.821664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Epidioxy sterols and sterols with special side chains, such as hydroperoxyl sterols, usually obtained from marine natural products, are attractive for bioactivities. OBJECTIVE To isolate and screen bioactive and special sterols from China Sea invertebrates. MATERIALS AND METHODS Two hydroperoxyl sterols (1 and 2) from the sponge Xestospongia testudinaria Lamarck (Petrosiidae), three epidioxy sterols (3-5) from the sea urchin Glyptocidaris crenularis A. Agassiz (Glyptocidaridae), sponge Mycale sp. (Mycalidae) and gorgonian Dichotella gemmacea Milne Edwards and Haime (Ellisellidae) and an unusual sterol with 25-acetoxy-19-oate (6) also from D. gemmacea were obtained and identified. Using high-throughput screening, their bioactivities were tested toward Forkhead box O 3a (Foxo3a), 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA reductase gene fluorescent protein (HMGCR-GFP), nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) luciferase, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ co-activator 1α (PGC-1α), protein-tyrosine phosphatase 1B (PTP1B), mitochondrial membrane permeabilization (MMP) and adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase. RESULTS Their structures were determined by comparing their nuclear magnetic resonance data with those reported in the literature. Three epidioxy sterols (3-5) showed inhibitory activities toward Foxo3a, HMGCR-GFP and NF-κB-luciferase with the IC50 values 4.9-6.8 μg/mL. The hydroperoxyl sterol 29-hydroperoxystigmasta-5,24(28)-dien-3-ol (2) had diverse inhibitory activities against Foxo3a, HMGCR-GFP, NF-κB-luciferase, PGC-1α, PTP1B and MMP, with IC50 values of 3.8-19.1 μg/mL. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The bioactivities of 3-5 showed that 5α,8α-epidioxy is the active group. Otherwise, the most plausible biosynthesis pathway for 1 and 2 in sponge involves the abstraction of an allylic proton by an activated oxygen, such as O2, along with migration of carbon-carbon double bond. Therefore, the bioactive and unstable steroid should be biosynthesized in sponge under a special ecological environment to act as a defensive strategy against invaders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuefeng Zhou
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology/Guangdong Key Laboratory of Marine Materia Medica, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Guangzhou , China
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Sheu JH, Chang KC, Sung PJ, Duh CY, Shen YC. Chemical Constituents of a Formosan Soft CoralSinulariasp. J CHIN CHEM SOC-TAIP 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/jccs.199900040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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Polysaccharides from Capsosiphon fulvescens stimulate the growth of gastrointestinal cells. ADVANCES IN FOOD AND NUTRITION RESEARCH 2011. [PMID: 22054946 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-387669-0.00013-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
Abstract
Capsosiphon fulvescens is a green alga that is abundant along the southwest coast of South Korea. Although it is consumed for its purported health-enhancing properties, particularly as a treatment for stomach disorders and hangovers, the health effects of dietary C. fulvescens remain unclear. Polysaccharides extracted from C. fulvescens (Cf-PS) are investigated for their effects on the proliferation of rat small intestinal epithelial IEC-6 cells. Cf-PS stimulated IEC-6 cell proliferation in a dose-dependent manner. Further, Cf-PS treatment induced the translocation of β-catenin, an effector of the Wnt signaling pathway, from the cytosol to the nucleus and increased the expression of cyclinD1 and c-myc. Cf-PS also induced ERK1/2 phosphorylation, which is activated by mitogenic and proliferative stimuli such as growth factors, but the phosphorylation of JNK and p38 was not enhanced. Therefore, this chapter discusses the effect of Cf-PS on the growth of gastrointestinal cells.
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Uddin MH, Roy MC, Tanaka J. Cytotoxic cholic acid type sterones from a marine soft coral Paraminabea sp. Chem Nat Compd 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s10600-011-9831-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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17
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Kumar SS, Kumar Y, Khan MSY, Anbu J, De Clercq E. Antihistaminic and antiviral activities of steroids of Turbinaria conoides. Nat Prod Res 2011; 25:723-9. [PMID: 21462071 DOI: 10.1080/14786411003781515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The steroids 3,6,17-trihydroxy-stigmasta-4,7,24(28)-triene (A) and 14,15,18,20-diepoxyturbinarin (B) were isolated from the cyclohexane extract of brown alga, Turbinaria conoides (J. Agardh) Kutzing, and have been reported for their antimicrobial activity by us. In this study, the isolated compounds were evaluated for comprehensive antihistaminic, antiviral and cytotoxicity screening. The antihistaminic study was performed using in vitro standard animal models. Evaluation of the potency (EC(50)), affinity (pA(2)) and the maximal response (E(max)) of the histamine alone and in the presence of the compounds were determined. Antiviral activity and cytotoxicity were performed in Crandell-Rees feline kidney (CRFK) cells by a colorimetric formazan-based MTS assay. No significant antiviral activity or cytotoxicity were observed for the compounds in the CRFK cells. Compound A inhibited the histamine-induced concentration at 20 µg mL(-1)(p < 0.05). The most significant inhibition (97%) was observed for compound B (p < 0.01) at the same concentration, which was comparable to that of the positive control chlorpheniramine maleate (10 µg mL(-1)). This potentiality suggests that 14,15,18,20-diepoxyturbinarin (B) can be developed as a new lead antihistaminic agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Sadish Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, ITS Paramedical College (Pharmacy), Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India.
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18
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Tian XR, Tang HF, Li YS, Lin HW, Chen XL, Ma N, Yao MN, Zhang PH. New cytotoxic oxygenated sterols from the marine bryozoan Cryptosula pallasiana. Mar Drugs 2011; 9:162-183. [PMID: 21566793 PMCID: PMC3093251 DOI: 10.3390/md9020162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2010] [Revised: 01/13/2011] [Accepted: 01/24/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Six new sterols (1-6), together with seven known sterols (7-13), were isolated from the CCl(4) extract of the marine bryozoan Cryptosula pallasiana, four (3-6) of which have already been reported as synthetic sterols. This is the first time that these compounds (3-6) are reported as natural sterols. The structures of the new compounds were determined on the basis of the extensive spectroscopic analysis, including two-dimensional (2D) NMR and HR-ESI-MS data. Compounds 1-4, 7 and 10-13 were evaluated for their cytotoxicity against HL-60 human myeloid leukemia cell line, and all of the evaluated compounds exhibited moderate cytotoxicity to HL-60 cells with a range of IC(50) values from 14.73 to 22.11 µg/mL except for compounds 12 and 13.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang-Rong Tian
- Department of Pharmacy, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an 710032, Shannxi, China; (X.-R.T.)
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicines, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, Liaoning, China
| | - Hai-Feng Tang
- Department of Pharmacy, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an 710032, Shannxi, China; (X.-R.T.)
| | - Yu-Shan Li
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicines, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, Liaoning, China
| | - Hou-Wen Lin
- Department of Pharmacy, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China; (H.-W.L.)
| | - Xiao-Li Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an 710032, Shannxi, China; (X.-R.T.)
| | - Ning Ma
- Department of Pharmacy, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an 710032, Shannxi, China; (X.-R.T.)
| | - Min-Na Yao
- Department of Pharmacy, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi’an 710032, Shannxi, China; (X.-R.T.)
| | - Ping-Hu Zhang
- Jiangsu Center for Drug Screening & National Drug Screening Laboratory, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, Jiangsu, China; (P.-H.Z.)
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19
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Go H, Hwang HJ, Nam TJ. A glycoprotein from Laminaria japonica induces apoptosis in HT-29 colon cancer cells. Toxicol In Vitro 2010; 24:1546-53. [PMID: 20615460 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2010.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2010] [Revised: 06/11/2010] [Accepted: 06/30/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
We isolated a novel glycoprotein from the brown alga Laminaria japonica that has antiproliferative effects on HT-29 colon cancer cells. We also identified the mechanism by which this glycoprotein, named LJGP, induces apoptosis. MTS assays showed that LJGP inhibited the proliferation of several cancer cell lines (AGS, HepG2, HT-29) in a dose-dependent manner. Especially in HT-29 cells, proliferation was significantly decreased. LJGP treatment on HT-29 displayed several apoptotic features, such as DNA fragmentation, sub-G1 arrest, caspase-3 activation, and PARP degradation. Consistent with sub-G1 arrest, LJGP decreased the expression of Cdk2, cyclin E, cyclin D1, PCNA, E2F-1, and phosphorylated pRb. Furthermore, the increase of p27 expression was observed. We also determined that LJGP-induced apoptosis leads to the formation of a death-induced signaling complex of Fas, FADD, and procaspase-8. LJGP induced the reduction of mitochondrial membrane potential with activation of the Bcl-2 family of proteins and caspase-9. These findings suggest that LJGP inhibits HT-29 cell proliferation by inducing apoptosis, which may be mediated via multiple pathways, including the Fas signaling pathway, the mitochondrial pathway, and cell cycle arrest. Therefore, LJGP can be a useful treatment option for colon cancer in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroe Go
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Pukyong National University, Busan, South Korea
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20
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Kumar SS, Kumar Y, Khan MSY, Gupta V. New antifungal steroids from Turbinaria conoides (J. Agardh) Kutzing. Nat Prod Res 2010; 24:1481-7. [PMID: 20812135 DOI: 10.1080/14786410903245233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Two new steroids 3,6,17-trihydroxy-stigmasta-4,7,24(28)-triene (1) and 14,15,18,20-diepoxyturbinarin (3), together with a known compound, fucosterol (2), were isolated from the cyclohexane extract of Turbinaria conoides. The structures were elucidated on the basis of spectroscopic evidence. The isolated compounds were screened against a panel of microorganisms. Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were determined by the standard broth dilution method. Compounds 1-3 exhibited moderate antibacterial activity against the tested bacteria and inhibited the fungal growth with MIC values ranging from 2 to 16 microg mL(-1). Compound 3 was found to be most potent against Aspergillus niger, with an MIC value of 2.0 microg mL(-1). The isolation of antifungal compounds from T. conoides is reported for the first time. These results suggested that 14,15,18,20-diepoxyturbinarin (3) could be developed as a new lead antifungal agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Sadish Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, I.T.S. Paramedical College, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India.
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21
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Huang HC, Chao CH, Kuo YH, Sheu JH. Crassocolides G-M, cembranoids from the Formosan soft coral Sarcophyton crassocaule. Chem Biodivers 2009; 6:1232-42. [PMID: 19697342 DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.200800142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Seven new polyoxygenated cembranoids possessing an alpha-methylene-gamma-lactone group, crassocolides G-M (1-7, resp.), have been isolated from the AcOEt extract of the Formosan soft coral Sarcophyton crassocaule. The structures of compounds 1-7 were established by detailed spectroscopic analyses, including 2D-NMR spectroscopy ((1)H,(1)H-COSY, HMQC, HMBC, and NOESY), while the absolute configuration of 1 was determined using a modified reaction of Mosher's method. The cytotoxicity of compounds 1-7 against a limited panel of cancer cell lines was also determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ho-Cheng Huang
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, Cheng Shiu University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
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22
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Kumar SS, Kumar Y, Khan MSY, Anbu J, Sam KG. Acute toxicity study and antipyretic effect of the brown alga Turbinaria conoides (J. Agardh) Kuetz. AFRICAN JOURNAL OF TRADITIONAL, COMPLEMENTARY, AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINES : AJTCAM 2009; 6:233-40. [PMID: 20448848 PMCID: PMC2816462 DOI: 10.4314/ajtcam.v6i3.57159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The active principles of brown alga, Turbinaria conoides (J.Agardh) Kuetz. (Sargassaceae) was extracted with n-hexane, cyclohexane, methanol and ethanol-water (1:1) and investigated for acute toxicity and antipyretic activity. Phytochemical analysis of the extracts revealed the presence of steroids, flavonoids and reducing sugars. Acute toxicity study was performed in Wistar rats after administration of extracts orally. No mortality was observed up to the dose of 5 g/kg for methanol and ethanol-water (1:1) extracts whereas n-hexane and cyclohexane extracts were found to be toxic at the dose levels of 1 g/kg and 2 g/kg respectively. In biochemical analysis, n-hexane, cyclohexane and ethanol-water (1:1) extracts caused a significant (P<0.01) increase in serum cholesterol, protein and alkaline phosphatase levels. In haematological studies, a significant difference was observed for cyclohexane and ethanol-water (1:1) extracts in polymorphs, lymphocytes and eosinophils when compared to the control. Antipyretic activity of extracts (100-400 mg/kg doses) was carried out on yeast-induced pyrexia in rats. Cyclohexane extract exhibited more significant antipyretic activity (P<0.01) than the other extracts at a dose of 200 mg/kg (54.43%), which was comparable to that of paracetamol at a dose of 33 mg/kg. The findings validated the use of this brown alga in traditional cure of children's fever.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Sadish Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, I.T.S.Paramedical College (Pharmacy), Murad Nagar-201 206, Uttar Pradesh, India.
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23
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Hwang HJ, Kwon MJ, Kim IH, Nam TJ. The effect of polysaccharide extracted from the marine alga Capsosiphon fulvescens on ethanol administration. Food Chem Toxicol 2008; 46:2653-7. [PMID: 18524446 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2008.04.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2007] [Revised: 03/18/2008] [Accepted: 04/21/2008] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Seaweed extracts have recently been found to have antioxidant and antitumor activities. Capsosiphon fulvescens (Cf) is a green alga and nutrient-dense food source. In a previous study, we extracted polysaccharide from Cf (Cf-PS) and demonstrated its antitumor effect in gastric cancer cells. In this report, we describe the protective effect of Cf-PS against alcohol-induced gastric injury in rats and adenocarcinoma (AGS) cells. In vivo assay revealed stomach damage in rats treated with alcohol alone; however, the stomach condition of rats co-treated with Cf-PS and alcohol matched that of the control group. Cf-PS also inhibited alcohol-induced cell death in AGS cells. Compared with alcohol treatment alone, Cf-PS and alcohol co-treatment increased phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) and Akt but inhibited poly-ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP) cleavage. Thus, ERK1/2 and Akt activation are instrumental in the protective effect of Cf-PS against alcohol-induced cell death in AGS cells. Moreover, Cf-PS treatment reduced the expressions of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and the inducible form of nitric oxide (iNOS), proteins related to ulcers. These results suggest that Cf-PS could help protect against alcohol-induced peptic ulcers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hye-Jeong Hwang
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Pukyong National University, Busan 608-737, Republic of Korea
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24
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Dembitsky VM. Bioactive peroxides as potential therapeutic agents. Eur J Med Chem 2007; 43:223-51. [PMID: 17618015 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2007.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2007] [Accepted: 04/30/2007] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Present review describes research on more than 280 natural anticancer agents isolated from terrestrial and marine sources and synthetic biologically active peroxides. Intensive searches for new classes of pharmacologically potent agents produced by terrestrial and marine organisms have resulted in the discovery of dozens of compounds possessing high cytotoxic, antibacterial, antimalarial, and other activities as an important source of leads for drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valery M Dembitsky
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Natural Products, School of Pharmacy, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Ein Kerem Campus, P.O. Box 12065, Jerusalem 91120, Israel.
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25
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Sung PJ, Lin MR, Chen JJ, Lin SF, Wu YC, Hwang TL, Fang LS. Hydroperoxysterols from the Tunicate Eudistoma sp. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 2007; 55:666-8. [PMID: 17409569 DOI: 10.1248/cpb.55.666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Two 27C hydroperoxysterols, 7beta-hydroperoxycholesterol (1) and its stereoisomer 7alpha-hydroperoxycholesterol (2), were isolated from the lipophilic extracts of a Formosan tunicate belonging to the genus Eudistoma. The structures of sterols 1 and 2 were elucidated on the basis of extensive spectral data analyses. Cytotoxicity of sterols 1 and 2 against a limited panel of cancer cell lines is also described. Sterol 1 show weak inhibitory effects on human neutrophil elastase release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping-Jyun Sung
- National Museum of Marine Biology and Aquarium, Pingtung, Taiwan, R.O.C.
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26
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Chen SP, Chao CH, Huang HC, Wu YC, Lu CK, Dai CF, Sheu JH. New β-Caryophyllene-Derived Terpenoids from the Formosan Soft CoralSinularia gibberosa. BULLETIN OF THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY OF JAPAN 2006. [DOI: 10.1246/bcsj.79.1547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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27
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Zhang WH, Zhong HM, Che CT. Cycloartanes from the red alga Galaxaura sp. JOURNAL OF ASIAN NATURAL PRODUCTS RESEARCH 2005; 7:59-65. [PMID: 15621603 DOI: 10.1080/10286020310001617138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Six cycloartane triterpenes have been isolated from the red alga Galaxaura sp. The new structures (galaxaurols A-E) were determined to be methyl 3beta-hydroxy-23-oxocycloart-24-en-29-oate (2), methyl 23(E)-3beta-hydroxy-25-methoxycycloart-23-en-29-oate (3), methyl 23(E)-3beta-hydroxycycloarta-23,25-dien-29-oate (4), 23(E)-25-methoxycycloart-23-en-3beta,29-diol (5), and cycloart-24-en-3beta,23alpha,29-triol (6), respectively.
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28
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Chen YH, Tu CJ, Wu HT. Growth-inhibitory effects of the red alga Gelidium amansii on cultured cells. Biol Pharm Bull 2004; 27:180-4. [PMID: 14758029 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.27.180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of Gelidium amansii, an edible red agar cultivated off the northeast coast of Taiwan, on the growth of two lines of cancer cells, murine hepatoma (Hepa-1) and human leukemia (HL-60) cells, as well as a normal cell line, murine embryo fibroblast cells (NIH-3T3). The potential role of G. amansii on the induction of apoptosis was also examined. The results indicated that all extracts from G. amansii, including phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) and methanol extracts from dried algae as well as the dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) extract from freeze-dried G. amansii agar, inhibited the growth of Hepa-1 and NIH-3T3 cells, but not the growth of HL-60 cells. Annexin V-positive cells were observed in methanol and DMSO extract-treated, but not PBS extract-treated Hepa-1 and NIH-3T3 cells, suggesting that the lipid-soluble extracts of G. amansii induced apoptosis. In summary, extracts of G. amansii from various preparations exhibited antiproliferative effects on Hepa-1 and NIH-3T3 cells, and apoptosis may play a role in the methanol and DMSO extract-induced inhibitory effects. However, the antiproliferative effects of PBS extracts was not through apoptosis. Moreover, the growth-inhibitory effects of G. amansii were not specific to cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue-Hwa Chen
- School of Nutrition and Health Sciences, Taipei Medical University, 250 Wu-Hsing Street, Taipei, Taiwan 110, ROC.
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29
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Abstract
The dichloromethane/methanol extract from the red alga Hypnea musciformis exhibited PPE elastase inhibition. A diketosteroid, the 20-hydroxy-5alpha-cholest-22-ene-3,6-dione was responsible for this activity. Two new steroids were isolated, 2 was assigned as the 6alpha-hydroxy-cholest-4-ene-3-one and 3 as the 6alpha-hydroxy-cholest-4,22-diene-3-one. The structures were assigned mainly on the basis of 1H and 13C NMR experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Bultel-Poncé
- Laboratoire de Chimie des Substances Naturelles associé au CNRS, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, 63 rue Buffon, 75005 Paris, France.
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30
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Zhou XD, Zhou WS. A new highly stereoselective synthesis of cerebrosterol, an agonist of the nuclear receptor LXRs. Tetrahedron 2001. [DOI: 10.1016/s0040-4020(01)00812-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Faulkner
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla 92093-0212, USA
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