Phorboxazole synthetic studies. 1. Construction of a C(3-19) subtarget exploiting an extension of the Petasis-Ferrier rearrangement

Direct synthesis of tetrahydropyran-4-ones via O3ReOH-catalyzed Prins cyclization of 3-chlorohomoallylic alcohols

A new variation of Prins cyclization to directly and stereoselectively synthesize cis-2,6-disubstituted tetrahydropyran-4-ones from 3-chlorohomoallylic alcohols and aldehydes catalyzed by perrhenic acid is reported. The reaction is generally compatible with a range of aliphatic and aromatic aldehydes and 24 examples of tetrahydropyran-4-one products have been prepared in moderate to good yields. This methodology highlights the use of simple starting materials and commercially available aqueous perrhenic acid as a catalyst for Prins cyclization reactions to directly synthesize 2,6-disubstituted tetrahydropyran-4-ones.

A Comparative Synthetic Strategy Perspective on α-Amino Acid- and Non-Amino Acid-Derived Synthons towards Total Syntheses of Selected Natural Macrolides

Macrocyclic alkaloids (macrolides) and cyclopeptides have an immense range of applications in drug discovery research because of their natural abundance and potential biological and physicochemical properties. Presently, more than 100 approved drugs or clinical drug candidates contain macrocyclic scaffolds as the biologically active component. This review provides an interesting perspective about the use of amino acid-derived chiral pools versus other methods derived from miscellaneous synthons towards the total synthesis of non-peptidic macrolides. The synthetic routes and the key strategies involved in the total syntheses of ten natural macrolides have been discussed. Both the amino acid-derived and non-amino acid-derived synthetic routes have been illustrated to present a comparative study between the two approaches.

Advances in the synthesis of glycosidic macrolides: clavosolides A-D and cyanolide A

Covering: 2005 to 2016Clavosolides A-D and cyanolide A are glycosidic macrolides and represent a new family of marine natural products. They possess a number of unusual structural features and have attracted considerable interest from the synthetic community. This review presents a comprehensive survey of all aspects of the clavosolides A-D and cyanolide A. Specific topics include isolation, structure determination, biological activity, and synthetic approaches.

A novel self-terminated Prins strategy for the synthesis of tetrahydropyran-4-one derivatives and their behaviour in Fisher indole synthesis

A novel self-terminated Prins strategy has been developed for the synthesis of 2-substituted tetrahydropyran-4-one derivatives through a condensation of 3-(phenylthio)but-3-en-1-ol with carbonyl compounds in the presence of 5 mol% of Sc(OTf)₃ under mild conditions.

Silyl enol ether Prins cyclization: diastereoselective formation of substituted tetrahydropyran-4-ones

A diastereoselective synthesis of cis-2,6-disubstituted tetrahydropyran-4-ones was developed. The key step of this methodology, a silyl enol ether Prins cyclization, was promoted by a condensation reaction between a hydroxy silyl enol ether and an aldehyde to afford substituted tetrahydropyran-4-ones. The cyclization was tolerant of many functional groups, and the modular synthesis of the hydroxy silyl enol ether allowed for the formation of more than 30 new tetrahydropyran-4-ones with up to 97% yield and >95:5 dr. The cyclization step forms new carbon-carbon and carbon-oxygen bonds, as well as a quaternary center with good diastereoselectivity. The method provides a versatile route for the synthesis of substituted tetrahydropyrans.

Secondary stereocontrolling interactions in chiral Brønsted acid catalysis: study of a Petasis–Ferrier-type rearrangement catalyzed by chiral phosphoric acids

Guided by computational studies, the involvement of non-classical C–H⋯O hydrogen bonds and π–π stacking interactions were found to be crucial for high stereocontrol in a chiral phosphoric acid-catalyzed reaction.

Formation of highly substituted tetrahydropyranones: application to the total synthesis of cyanolide A

A new tetrahydropyranone synthesis has been developed that leads to cis-2,6-disubstituted 3,3-dimethyltetrahydropyran-4-one rings by condensation of an aldehyde and a hydroxy silyl enol ether. The reaction works with a variety of aldehydes to produce the tetrahydropyranone products in moderate to high yields. This new method was applied to the enantioselective synthesis of cyanolide A and its aglycone.

DFT study on the mechanism and stereochemistry of the Petasis-Ferrier rearrangements

The Petasis-Ferrier rearrangement is a very important and useful reaction for the synthesis of multifunctional tetrahydrofurans and tetrahydropyrans from easily synthesized enol acetals. Here we report our DFT investigation of the detailed reaction mechanism of the Petasis-Ferrier rearrangement, proposing that the active promoting species in this reaction is the cationic aluminum species, instead of the usually considered neutral Lewis acid (this will give very high activation energies and cannot explain why the Petasis-Ferrier rearrangements usually take place at low temperature or under mild conditions). Calculations indicated that the mechanisms of the Petasis-Ferrier rearrangements for the formations of five- and six-membered rings are different. Formation of five-membered tetrahydrofuranone is stepwise with C-O bond cleavage to generate an oxocarbenium enolate intermediate, which then undergoes an aldol-type reaction to give the desired cyclized oxacycle. In contrast, the formation of six-membered tetrahydropyranone is a concerted and asynchronous process with the C-O bond breakage and aldol-type C-C bond formation occurring simultaneously. A DFT understanding of why the catalytic versions of the Petasis-Ferrier rearrangements cannot be realized when using R2Al(+) as the active promoting species has also been discussed. In addition, DFT calculations were used to reveal the origins of the stereochemistry observed in the Petasis-Ferrier rearrangements.

Synthesis of Functionalized 4-Methylenetetrahydropyrans by Oxidative Activation of Cinnamyl or Benzyl Ethers

Oxidative activation of benzyl or cinnamyl ether bearing allylsilane derivatives using a catalytic amount of DDQ and 2 equivalents of CAN in the presence of PPTS provided functionalized 4-methylenetetrahydropyrans in good yields and excellent diastereoselectivity. The reaction could be applied to the synthesis of a variety of substituted tetrahydropyran derivatives.

(+)-Sorangicin A: evolution of a viable synthetic strategy

An effective, asymmetric total synthesis of the antibiotic (+)-sorangicin A (1) has been achieved. Central to this venture was the development of first and second generation syntheses of the signature dioxabicyclo[3.2.1]octane core, the first featuring chemo- and stereoselective epoxide ring openings facilitated by a Co(2)(CO)(6)-alkyne complex, the second involving a KHMDS-promoted epoxide ring formation/opening cascade. Additional highlights include effective construction of the dihydro- and tetrahydropyran ring systems, respectively via a stereoselective conjugate addition/α-oxygenation protocol and a thioketalization/hydrostannane reduction sequence. Late-stage achievements entailed two Julia-Kociénski olefinations to unite three advanced fragments with high E-stereoselectivity, followed by a modified Stille protocol to introduce the Z,Z,E trienoate moiety, thereby completing the carbon skeleton. Mukaiyama macrolactonization, followed by carefully orchestrated Lewis and protic acid-promoted deprotections that suppressed isomerization and/or destruction of the sensitive (Z,Z,E)-trienoate linkage completed the first, and to date only, total synthesis of (+)-sorangicin A (1).

Spongipyran Synthetic Studies. Evolution of a Scalable Total Synthesis of (+)-Spongistatin 1

Three syntheses of the architecturally complex, cytotoxic marine macrolide (+)-spongistatin 1 (1) are reported. Highlights of the first-generation synthesis include: use of a dithiane multicomponent linchpin coupling tactic for construction of the AB and CD spiroketals, and their union via a highly selective Evans boron-mediated aldol reaction en route to an ABCD aldehyde; introduction of the C(44)-C(51) side chain via a Lewis acid-mediated ring opening of a glucal epoxide with an allylstannane to assemble the EF subunit; and final fragment union via Wittig coupling of the ABCD and EF subunits to form the C(28)-C(29) olefin, followed by regioselective Yamaguchi macrolactonization and global deprotection. The second- and third- generation syntheses, designed with the goal of accessing one gram of (+)-spongistatin 1 (1), maintain both the first-generation strategy for the ABCD aldehyde and final fragment union, while incorporating two more efficient approaches for construction of the EF Wittig salt. The latter combine the original chelation-controlled dithiane union of the E- and F-ring progenitors with application of a highly efficient cyanohydrin alkylation to append the F-ring side chain, in conjunction with two independent tactics to access the F-ring pyran. The first F-ring synthesis showcases a Petasis-Ferrier union/rearrangement protocol to access tetrahydropyrans, permitting the preparation of 750 mgs of the EF Wittig salt, which in turn was converted to 80 mg of (+)-spongistatin 1, while the second F-ring strategy, incorporates an organocatalytic aldol reaction as the key construct, permitting completion of 1.009 g of totally synthetic (+)-spongistatin 1 (1). A brief analysis of the three syntheses alongside our earlier synthesis of (+)-spongistatin 2 is also presented.

Evolution of the total synthesis of (-)-okilactomycin exploiting a tandem oxy-cope rearrangement/oxidation, a Petasis-Ferrier union/rearrangement, and ring-closing metathesis

An effective, asymmetric total synthesis of the antitumor antibiotic (-)-okilactomycin (1), as well as assignment of the absolute configuration, has been achieved exploiting a convergent strategy. Highlights of the synthesis include a diastereoselective oxy-Cope rearrangement/oxidation sequence to install the C(1) and C(13) stereogenic centers, a Petasis-Ferrier union/rearrangement to construct the highly functionalized tetrahydropyranone inscribed within the 13-membered macrocycle ring, employing for the first time a sterically demanding acetal, an intramolecular chemoselective acylation to access an embedded bicyclic lactone, and an efficient ring-closing metathesis (RCM) reaction to generate the macrocyclic ring.

Evolution of the Petasis-Ferrier union/rearrangement tactic: construction of architecturally complex natural products possessing the ubiquitous cis-2,6-substituted tetrahydropyran structural element

The frequent low abundance of architecturally complex natural products possessing significant bioregulatory properties mandates the development of rapid, efficient, and stereocontrolled synthetic tactics, not only to provide access to the biologically rare target but also to enable elaboration of analogues for the development of new therapeutic agents with improved activities and/or pharmacokinetic properties. In this Account, the genesis and evolution of the Petasis-Ferrier union/rearrangement tactic, in the context of natural product total syntheses, is described. The reaction sequence comprises a powerful tactic for the construction of the 2,6- cis-substituted tetrahydropyran ring system, a ubiquitous structural element often found in complex natural products possessing significant bioactivities. The three-step sequence, developed in our laboratory, extends two independent methods introduced by Ferrier and Petasis and now comprises: condensation between a chiral, nonracemic beta-hydroxy acid and an aldehyde to furnish a dioxanone; carbonyl olefination; and Lewis-acid-induced rearrangement of the resultant enol acetal to generate the 2,6- cis-substituted tetrahydropyranone system in a highly stereocontrolled fashion. To demonstrate the envisioned versatility and robustness of the Petasis-Ferrier union/rearrangement tactic in complex molecule synthesis, we exploited the method as the cornerstone in our now successful total syntheses of (+)-phorboxazole A, (+)-zampanolide, (+)-dactylolide, (+)-spongistatins 1 and 2, (-)-kendomycin, (-)-clavosolide A, and most recently, (-)-okilactomycin. Although each target comprises a number of synthetic challenges, this Account focuses on the motivation, excitement, and frustrations associated with the evolution and implementation of the Petasis-Ferrier union/rearrangement tactic. For example, during our (+)-phorboxazole A endeavor, we recognized and exploited the inherent pseudo symmetry of the 2,6- cis-substituted tetrahydropyranone product to overcome the inherent chelation bias of an adjacent oxazolidine ring during the Lewis-acid-promoted rearrangement. In addition, we discovered that a more concentrated solution of Cp2TiMe2 (0.7 versus 0.5 M in THF) with the addition of ethyl pivalate dramatically improves the yield in the Petasis-Tebbe olefination. During the (+)-zampanolide and (+)-dactylolide programs, we observed that the addition of trifluoromethanesulfonic acid (TfOH), especially on a preparative scale, was crucial to the efficiency of the initial condensation/union reaction, while our efforts toward (-)-kendomycin led to the improved implementation of a modified Kurihara condensation of the beta-hydroxy acid and aldehyde involving i-PrOTMS and TMSOTf. Finally, the successful deployment of the Petasis-Ferrier tactic in our synthesis of (-)-clavosolide A validated the viability of this tactic with a system possessing the highly acid-labile cyclopropylcarbinyl moiety, while the challenges en route to (-)-okilactomycin demonstrated that a neighboring alkene functionality can participate in an intramolecular Prins cyclization during the TMSOTf-promoted union process, unless suitably protected.

The [1, 3] O-to-C rearrangement: opportunities for stereoselective synthesis

The relay of stereochemistry of a breaking C-O bond into a forming C-C bond is well-known in the context of [3, 3] sigmatropic shifts; however, this useful strategy is less well-known in other types of molecular rearrangements. Though the first successful example of a [1, 3] O-to-C rearrangement was reported more than 100 years ago, this class of reactions has received less attention than its [3, 3] counterpart. This perspective analyzes the various methods used for the activation and [1, 3] rearrangement of vinyl ethers with an emphasis on mechanism and applications to stereoselective synthesis. We also highlight our own contributions to this area.

A cyclopropane fragmentation approach to heterocycle assembly: a convergent synthesis of oxepanes

[reaction: see text] A cyclopropanol fragmentation approach to the synthesis of oxepanes has been developed. This convergent strategy condenses cyclopropyl diols with aldehydes to form an acetal, which is subsequently rearranged to furnish a keto-oxepane. The reaction has been developed as a one-pot procedure, utilizing sequential addition of Al(OTf)3 and TiCl4. Yields range from 50 to 70% for the sequence. A Zimmerman-Traxler transition state disposing substituents in equatorial positions is consistent with the observed formation of strictly cis products.

Total Synthesis of Phorboxazole B

An efficient and highly convergent total synthesis of the potent antitumor agent phorboxazole B has been achieved. The synthetic strategy of this synthesis features: 1) a highly efficient substrate-controlled hydrogenation to construct the functionalized cis-tetrahydropyrane unit; 2) iterative crotyl addition to synthesize the segment that contains alternating hydroxyl and methyl substituents; 3) Hg(OAc)2/I2-induced cyclization to establish the cis-tetrahydropyrane moiety; 4) 1,3-asymmetric induction in the Mukaiyama aldol reaction to afford the stereogenic centers at C9 and C3; and 5) the exploration of the Still-Gennari olefination reaction to complete the macrolide ring of phorboxazoloe B.

Development of the Scope of a Co-Mediated O→C Rearrangement Reaction

[reaction: see text] In this paper we describe an Al-promoted, Co-mediated O-->C rearrangement reaction of cyclic enol ethers. This process delivers functionalized cyclohexanones with good to excellent levels of diastereocontrol, whereby the product stereochemistry is dependent on the E/Z-stereochemistry of the starting enol ether. The rearrangement process also permits access to highly substituted alpha-spirocyclic cyclohexanones as well as cyclopentanones. The latter rearrangement appears to proceed via an unusual 5-(enolendo)-exo-trig cyclization process.

Synthesis of the C1-C17 segment of phorboxazole B

The C1-C17 bis-oxane subunit 22 of phorboxazole B is efficiently synthesized by exploiting differential reactivities between similar substituents on the hydropyran rings in 4. Selective dihydroxylation of the equatorial vinyl group, hydroboration of the axial vinyl group, and intramolecular Mitsunobu lactonization serve to fully differentiate the similar hydropyrans.

(+)-Phorboxazole A Synthetic Studies. A Highly Convergent, Second Generation Total Synthesis of (+)-Phorboxazole A

[structure: see text] A second generation total synthesis of the potent antitumor agent (+)-phorboxazole A (1) has been achieved. The cornerstone of this approach comprises a more convergent strategy, involving late-stage Stille union of a fully elaborated C(1-28) macrocycle with a C(29-46) side chain. The second generation synthesis entails the longest linear sequence of 24 steps, with an overall yield of 4.2%.

(+)-Sorangicin A Synthetic Studies. Construction of the C(1−15) and C(16−29) Subtargets

[structure: see text] Effective stereocontrolled syntheses of subtargets (-)-2 and (-)-4, comprising respectively the C(16-29) and C(1-15) tetrahydropyran and dihydropyran moieties of the potent antibiotic (+)-sorangicin A (1), have been achieved. The cornerstone for the synthesis of (-)-2 involved an aldol tactic exploiting 1,4-induction, followed in turn by an acid-mediated cyclization/ketalization and hydrosilane reduction promoted by TMSOTf, while construction of (-)-4 entailed a stereoselective conjugate addition/alpha-oxygenation sequence.

Total Synthesis of (−)-Kendomycin Exploiting a Petasis−Ferrier Rearrangement/Ring-Closing Olefin Metathesis Synthetic Strategy

The total synthesis of (-)-kendomycin (1), a novel macrocyclic polyketide with antibacterial and antitumor activity, was achieved in 21 steps (longest linear sequence) exploiting an effective Petasis-Ferrier union/rearrangement tactic to construct the tetrahydropyran ring, a ring-closing metathesis to generate the macrocycle, and a biomimetic quinone-methide-lactol assembly.

A Catalytic Enantioselective Hetero Diels−Alder Approach to the C20−C32 Segment of the Phorboxazoles

[reaction: see text] An efficient synthesis of the C20-C32 segment of the phorboxazoles has been achieved using an enantioselective hetero Diels-Alder reaction catalyzed by Jacobsen's Cr(III) amino indanol Schiff base catalyst.

Toward the Total Synthesis of Phorboxazole B: An Efficient Synthesis of the C20−C46 Segment

An efficient synthesis of the C20-C46 segment of phorboxazole B is described. The key steps involved Hg(OAc)(2)/I(2)-induced cyclization to construct the cis-tetrahydropyran moiety, the coupling of the metalated 2-methyloxazole 7 with lactone 6, and Julia olefination to furnish the conjugated diene moiety.

Spongistatin Synthetic Studies. Evolution of a Scalable Synthesis for the EF Fragment of (+)-Spongistatin 1 Exploiting a Petasis−Ferrier Union/Rearrangement Tactic

[structure: see text] An efficient, stereocontrolled, and scalable second-generation synthesis of (+)-3, an advanced EF subtarget for the total synthesis of (+)-spongistatin 1, has been achieved. Highlights of the strategy include preparation of the F-ring pyran via a Petasis-Ferrier union/rearrangement sequence and installation of the chlorodiene side chain employing a cyanohydrin alkylation. The longest linear sequence, 26 steps, proceeds in 8.3% overall yield.

Studies of stereocontrolled allylation reactions for the total synthesis of phorboxazole A

A highly convergent total synthesis of the potent anticancer agent (+)-phorboxazole A (1) is accomplished. Four components (3-6) are assembled with considerations for control of absolute and relative stereochemistry. Iterative asymmetric allylation methodology addresses key stereochemical features in the preparation of the 2,6-cis- and 2,6-trans-tetrahydropyranyl rings of the C3-C19 component (3). The stereocontrolled asymmetric allylation process is also used for development of the C28-C41 fragment (4). Novel Barbier coupling reactions of alpha-iodomethyl oxazoles and related thiazoles are described with samarium iodide. The convergent assembly of components 4 and 5 features formation of the fully substituted C22-C26 pyran by intramolecular capture of an allyl cation intermediate with high facial selectivity, and further efforts lead to E-C19/C20 olefination. The synthesis culminates with use of a modified Julia olefination for attachment of the C42-C46 segment and subsequent late-stage macrocyclization by installation of the (Z)-C2/C3 alpha,beta-unsaturated lactone.

Phorboxazole B synthetic studies: construction of C(1–32) and C(33–46) subtargets

The convergent syntheses of the C(1-32) and C(33-46) domains of phorboxazole B are described. An iterative cyclocondensation strategy exploited the Jacobsen hetero-Diels-Alder (HDA) reaction as a platform for the synthesis of both the C(5-9) and C(11-15) tetrahydropyran rings. The use of 2-silyloxydiene coupling partners bearing an increasing resemblance to the phorboxazole skeleton was found to lead to a reduction in diastereoselectivity, however, in the case of the C(11-15) ring. The coupling of aldehyde and 2-silyloxydiene by this route provided a C(1-32) fragment which was elaborated to the macrolide core of phorboxazole B. The synthesis of the C(33-46) domain involved a Nozaki-Kishi coupling of aldehyde 31 and vinyl iodide 39. The syntheses of 31 and 39 were highly diastereoselective: an Evans [Cu(Ph-pybox)](SbF6)2-catalysed Mukaiyama aldol reaction formed the cornerstone of the synthesis of 31 whilst a Nagao-Fujita acetate aldol reaction provided a convenient means of installing the sole stereogenic centre of 39.

Palladium(0)-Mediated Desymmetrization of Meso Tetraols: An Approach to the C3−C17 Bis-oxane Segment of Phorboxazoles A and B

[reaction: see text] meso-Tetraol bis(allylic acetates) 2 and 5 were synthesized via two-directional chain elongation. A palladium-mediated, ligand-controlled desymmetrization provided the desired bis-oxanes in greater than 98% ee. Bis-oxanes 1 and 4 represent potential synthetic intermediates for the C3-C17 subunits of phorboxazoles A and B.

Investigation of a stereoselective co-mediated rearrangement reaction

A stereocontrolled approach to alpha-alkyl beta-alkynyl cyclohexanones is reported through a Lewis acid mediated rearrangement reaction of enol ethers bearing an Co-alkyne moiety. The reaction proceeds with high levels of stereoselectivity in the presence of Ti- and B-Lewis acids to provide a range of alpha,beta-disubstituted cyclohexanones in high yield although the products are prone to epimerization at the alpha-position in the presence of the B-promoter system. The potential for an enantioselective variant of this process is outlined, and a rationale for the observed stereochemical trends and detailed structural analyses of the ketone products are described.

Total syntheses of (+)-zampanolide and (+)-dactylolide exploiting a unified strategy

The first total syntheses of (+)-zampanolide (1) and (+)-dactylolide (2), members of a new class of tumor cell growth inhibitory macrolides, have been achieved. Key features of the unified synthetic scheme included the stereocontrolled construction of the cis-2,6-disubstituted tetrahydropyran via a modified Petasis-Ferrier rearrangement, a highly convergent assembly of the macrocyclic domain, and, in the case of zampanolide, a Curtius rearrangement/acylation tactic to install the N-acyl hemiaminal. The complete relative and absolute stereochemistries for both (+)-zampanolide and (+)-dactylolide were also assigned, albeit tentatively in the case of (+)-zampanolide (1).

Stereoretentive O-to-C rearrangement of vinyl acetals: solvent cage effects as a stereocontrol element

The Lewis acid-mediated rearrangement of chiral vinyl acetals may be induced to provide the product of stereoretention using Me3Al and BF3.OEt2 in concert. The selectivities obtained in this reaction (86:14 to 96:4) are complementary to that observed when relying on oxocarbenium facial bias to control the newly formed stereocenter. Evidence is presented that this reaction occurs by tight ion-pair binding in the solvent cage. The relay of C-O bond stereochemistry to a C-C bond stereocenter via ionic intermediates is an addition to similar established methods such as the Claisen rearrangement.

Pyran annulation: asymmetric synthesis of 2,6-disubstituted-4-methylene tetrahydropyrans

[reaction: see text] A reaction process for the asymmetric construction of a variety of cis or trans disubstituted pyrans is described. This sequences allows for the asymmetric convergent union of two aldehydes with silyl-stannane reagent 1 in a two-step process: catalytic asymmetric allylation of the first aldehyde using 1 with a BITIP catalyst, followed by reaction of the alcohol so obtained with a second aldehyde and TMSOTf.

Total synthesis of (+)-phorboxazole A exploiting the Petasis-Ferrier rearrangement

A highly convergent, stereocontrolled total synthesis of the potent antiproliferative agent (+)-phorboxazole A (1) has been achieved. Highlights of the synthesis include: modified Petasis-Ferrier rearrangements for assembly of both the C(11-15) and C(22-26) cis-tetrahydropyran rings; extension of the Julia olefination to the synthesis of enol ethers; the design, synthesis, and application of a novel bifunctional oxazole linchpin; and Stille coupling of a C(28) trimethyl stannane with a C(29) oxazole triflate. The longest linear sequence leading to (+)-phorboxazole A (1) was 27 steps, with an overall yield of 3%.

Synthetic studies toward phorboxazole A. stereoselective synthesis of the C(28)-C(46) side chain fragment

A stereoselective synthesis of the C(28)-C(46) fragment (3) of phorboxazole A is described. Key advances include an enantioselective allylation to establish the stereochemistry of the tetrahydropyran unit and a useful SmI(2)-mediated modification of the Barbier reaction of iodomethyloxazole 15 with aldehyde 14.