Secretome-Derived Isotope Tags (SDIT) Reveal Adipocyte-Derived Apolipoprotein C-I as a Predictive Marker for Cardiovascular Disease

Emerging Biomarkers and Determinants of Lipoprotein Profiles to Predict CVD Risk: Implications for Precision Nutrition

Biomarkers constitute a valuable tool to diagnose both the incidence and the prevalence of chronic diseases and may help to inform the design and effectiveness of precision nutrition interventions. Cardiovascular disease (CVD) continues to be the foremost cause of death all over the world. While the reasons that lead to increased risk for CVD are multifactorial, dyslipidemias, plasma concentrations of specific lipoproteins, and dynamic measures of lipoprotein function are strong biomarkers to predict and document coronary heart disease incidence. The aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive evaluation of the biomarkers and emerging approaches that can be utilized to characterize lipoprotein profiles as predictive tools for assessing CVD risk, including the assessment of traditional clinical lipid panels, measures of lipoprotein efflux capacity and inflammatory and antioxidant activity, and omics-based characterization of lipoprotein composition and regulators of lipoprotein metabolism. In addition, we discuss demographic, genetic, metagenomic, and lifestyle determinants of lipoprotein profiles-such as age, sex, gene variants and single-nucleotide polymorphisms, gut microbiome profiles, dietary patterns, physical inactivity, obesity status, smoking and alcohol intake, and stress-which are likely to be essential factors to explain interindividual responses to precision nutrition recommendations to mitigate CVD risk.

Proteomics and metabolomics analyses reveal the full spectrum of inflammatory and lipid metabolic abnormalities in dyslipidemia

Dyslipidemia is a common, chronic metabolic disease associated with cardiovascular complications. Due to the multiplicity of etiological factors, the pathogenesis of dyslipidemia is still unclear. In this study, we combined proteomics and metabolomics methods to analyze the plasma of patients with dyslipidemia and healthy subjects. isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantification (iTRAQ) markers, combined with LC-MS/MS proteomics technology and the UHPLC/Orbitfast-X Tribrid system, were used to establish the metabolite profile in clinical dyslipidemia. A total of 137 differentially expressed proteins, mainly related to biological processes such as protein activation cascades, adaptive immune responses, complement activation, acute inflammatory responses, and regulation of acute inflammatory responses, were identified. These proteins are involved in the regulation of important metabolic pathways, such as immunity and inflammation, coagulation and hemostasis, lipid metabolism, and oxidation and antioxidant defenses. The analysis of clinical metabolites showed there were 69 different metabolites in plasma, mainly related to glycerolipid, sphingolipid, porphyrin, α-linolenic acid, linoleic acid, and arachidonic acid metabolism, suggesting that the regulation of inflammation and lipid metabolism may be disturbed in patients with dyslipidemia. Among these, significant changes were observed in indole-3-propionic acid (IPA), which is considered as a potential biomarker of dyslipidemia. The combined analysis of proteins and metabolites showed that arachidonic acid, linoleic acid, and lipid metabolic pathways were closely related to dyslipidemia. IPA may be a potential biomarker. The information provided in this study may provide new insights into the pathogenesis of animal models of dyslipidemia and related disease models, as well as potential intervention targets.

Secretome Analysis of Hypoxia-Induced 3T3-L1 Adipocytes Uncovers Novel Proteins Potentially Involved in Obesity

In the obese state, as adipose tissue expands, adipocytes become hypoxic and dysfunctional, leading to changes in the pattern of adipocyte-secreted proteins. To better understand the role of hypoxia in the mechanisms linked to obesity, we comparatively analyzed the secretome of murine differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes exposed to normoxia or hypoxia for 24 h. Proteins secreted into the culture media were precipitated by trichloroacetic acid and then digested with trypsin. The peptides were labeled with dimethyl labeling and analyzed by reversed phase nanoscale liquid chromatography coupled to a quadrupole Orbitrap mass spectrometer. From a total of 1508 identified proteins, 109 were differentially regulated, of which 108 were genuinely secreted. Factors significantly downregulated in hypoxic conditions included adiponectin, a known adipokine implicated in metabolic processes, as well as thrombospondin-1 and -2, and matrix metalloproteinase-11, all multifunctional proteins involved in extracellular matrix (ECM) homeostasis. Findings were validated by Western blot analysis. Expression studies of the relative genes were performed in parallel experiments in vitro, in differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes, and in vivo, in fat tissues from obese versus lean mice. Our observations are compatible with the concept that hypoxia may be an early trigger for both adipose cell dysfunction and ECM remodeling.

Mass spectrometry-based plasma proteomics: state of the art and future outlook

Mass spectrometry-based plasma proteomics is a field where intense research has been performed during the last decade. Being closely linked to biomarker discovery, the field has received a fair amount of criticism, mostly due to the low number of novel biomarkers reaching the clinic. However, plasma proteomics is under gradual development with improvements on fractionation methods, mass spectrometry instrumentation and analytical approaches. These recent developments have contributed to the revival of plasma proteomics. The goal of this review is to summarize these advances, focusing in particular on fractionation methods, both for targeted and global mass spectrometry-based plasma analysis.

Long-term alterations in maternal plasma proteome after sFlt1-induced preeclampsia in mice

OBJECTIVE

Preeclampsia is associated with long-term adverse maternal health, such as cardiovascular and metabolic diseases. The objective of this study was to determine whether preeclampsia in a well-characterized animal model that was induced by overexpression of soluble fms-like tyrosine kinase-1 (sFlt1) results in alterations in the maternal circulating proteome that persist long after delivery.

STUDY DESIGN

CD-1 mice at day 8 of gestation were injected with adenovirus that carried sFlt1 or the murine immunoglobulin G2α Fc fragment as control. Depleted maternal plasma was analyzed 6 months after delivery by label-free liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry assay. The tandem mass spectrometry data were searched against a mouse database, and the resultant intensity data were used to compare abundance of proteins across disease/control plasma pool. Results were analyzed with ingenuity pathways analysis. Right-tailed Fisher exact test was used to calculate a probability value.

RESULTS

Of 150 proteins that are common for both groups, ingenuity pathways analysis determined 105 proteins that were ready for analysis. Diseases and disorders analysis showed significant enrichment of proteins that are associated with cardiovascular disease. Within this cluster, the most abundant proteins were associated with vascular disease, atherosclerosis, and atherosclerotic lesions. Other top disease clusters were inflammatory response, organismal injury and abnormalities, and hematologic and metabolic disease.

CONCLUSION

Exposure to sFlt1-induced preeclampsia alters multiple biologic functions in mothers that persist later in life. Our results suggest that some of the long-term adverse outcomes that are associated with preeclampsia actually may be a consequence rather than a mere unmasking of an underlying predisposition. If similar results are found in humans, the development of preventive strategies for preeclampsia should also improve long-term maternal health.

Application of proteomics technology in adipocyte biology

Obesity and its associated complications have reached epidemic proportions in Western-type societies. Concomitantly, the obesity incidence in developing countries is increasing. One hallmark of obesity is the differentiation of pre-adipocytes into mature triglyceride-loaded adipocytes present in subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissue depots. This may ultimately lead to dysfunctional adipose tissue together with detrimental changes in the profiles of (pre-)adipocyte-secreted proteins, known as adipokines. Obesity-induced alterations in adipokine profiles contribute to the development of obesity-associated disorders. Consequently, the interest in the molecular events responsible for adipose tissue modifications during weight gain and weight loss as well as in the aetiology of obesity-associated disorders is growing. Molecular mechanisms involved in pre-adipocyte differentiation and alterations in adipokine profiles have been examined at the gene and protein level by high-throughput technologies. Independent proteomics studies have contributed significantly to further insight into adipocyte biology, particularly with respect to adipokine profiling. In this review novel findings obtained with adipo-proteomics studies are highlighted and the relevance of proteomics technologies to further understand molecular aspects of adipocyte biology is discussed.

White adipose tissue apolipoprotein C-I secretion in relation to delayed plasma clearance of dietary fat in humans

OBJECTIVE

White adipose tissue (WAT) dysfunction is characterized by delayed clearance of dietary triglyceride-rich lipoproteins (TRL). We reported that apolipoprotein (apo) C-I, a transferable apolipoprotein that inhibits lipoprotein lipase activity when bound to TRL, was produced by a human adipocyte model. Thus, we aimed to determine whether increased WAT apoC-I secretion is related to delayed dietary fat clearance in humans.

METHODS AND RESULTS

After the ingestion of a (13)C-triolein-labeled high-fat meal, postmenopausal obese women with high-fasting WAT apoC-I secretion (median >0.81 μmol/L per g/4 hours, n=9) had delayed postprandial plasma clearance of (13)C-triglyceride and (13)C-nonesterified fatty acids over 6 hours compared with controls. WAT apoC-I secretion over 4 hours correlated with fasting total and non-high-density lipoprotein apoC-I but not with high-density lipoprotein apoC-I and was the primary predictor of 4-hour postprandial increases in TRL apoC-I. Correction for TRL apoC-I eliminated the association of WAT apoC-I with 6-hour area under the curve of plasma (13)C-triglyceride; correction for insulin sensitivity or inflammation did not. Finally, in addition to apoC-I, WAT secreted considerable amount of apoC-II, apoC-III, and apoE over 24 hours; however, only WAT apoC-I secretion was associated with 6-hour area under the curve of plasma (13)C-triglyceride.

CONCLUSIONS

Increased WAT apoC-I secretion in obese women is associated with delayed postprandial dietary fat clearance mediated by increased TRL apoC-I. Thus, we hypothesize that reducing WAT apoC-I secretion ameliorates WAT dysfunction and associated cardiometabolic risks in humans.