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Giri AP, Short BD, Piñero JC. Male and Female Tortricid Moth Response to Non-Pheromonal Semiochemicals. INSECTS 2023; 14:884. [PMID: 37999083 PMCID: PMC10671916 DOI: 10.3390/insects14110884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Revised: 11/14/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023]
Abstract
In eastern North America, apple orchards are often attacked by several species of tortricid moths (Lepidoptera), including Cydia pomonella, Grapholita molesta, Argyrotaenia velutinana, and Pandemis limitata. Sex pheromones are routinely used to monitor male moth populations. Adding plant volatiles to monitoring traps could increase the capture of moths of both sexes and improve the effectiveness of mating disruption systems. This study sought to quantify the attraction of adults of four tortricid moth species to five olfactory treatments, namely (1) Pherocon® CM L2-P, (2) Pherocon Megalure CM 4K Dual® (=Megalure), (3) Megalure + benzaldehyde, (4) TRE 2266 (linalool oxide + (E)-4,8-dimethyl-1,3,7-nonatriene (DMNT)), and (5) TRE 2267 (linalool oxide + DMNT + benzaldehyde), in non-mating disrupted commercial apple orchards in Massachusetts. The commercial lure Megalure was attractive to both sexes of G. molesta and C. pomonella. The addition of benzaldehyde to TRE 2266 or to Megalure significantly increased the capture of male G. molesta during the mid and late season of 2021. Only when benzaldehyde was added to TRE 2266 did the latter lure attract P. limitata in 2020 and 2021. The greatest number of tortricid moths (all four species combined) was captured by TRE 2267. This finding highlights the opportunity to enhance the attractiveness of a commercial lure through the addition of benzaldehyde, an aromatic compound, to Megalure. The potential of these additional volatiles to detect moths in a mating-disrupted orchard and/or remove female moths as a component of a management system is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ajay P. Giri
- Stockbridge School of Agriculture, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA;
| | | | - Jaime C. Piñero
- Stockbridge School of Agriculture, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA;
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2
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Revadi SV, Giannuzzi VA, Rossi V, Hunger GM, Conchou L, Rondoni G, Conti E, Anderson P, Walker WB, Jacquin-Joly E, Koutroumpa F, Becher PG. Stage-specific expression of an odorant receptor underlies olfactory behavioral plasticity in Spodoptera littoralis larvae. BMC Biol 2021; 19:231. [PMID: 34706739 PMCID: PMC8555055 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-021-01159-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The detection of environmental cues and signals via the sensory system directs behavioral choices in diverse organisms. Insect larvae rely on input from the chemosensory system, mainly olfaction, for locating food sources. In several lepidopteran species, foraging behavior and food preferences change across larval instars; however, the molecular mechanisms underlying such behavioral plasticity during larval development are not fully understood. Here, we hypothesize that expression patterns of odorant receptors (ORs) change during development, as a possible mechanism influencing instar-specific olfactory-guided behavior and food preferences. Results We investigated the expression patterns of ORs in larvae of the cotton leafworm Spodoptera littoralis between the first and fourth instar and revealed that some of the ORs show instar-specific expression. We functionally characterized one OR expressed in the first instar, SlitOR40, as responding to the plant volatile, β-caryophyllene and its isomer α-humulene. In agreement with the proposed hypothesis, we showed that first but not fourth instar larvae responded behaviorally to β-caryophyllene and α-humulene. Moreover, knocking out this odorant receptor via CRISPR-Cas9, we confirmed that instar-specific responses towards its cognate ligands rely on the expression of SlitOR40. Conclusion Our results provide evidence that larvae of S. littoralis change their peripheral olfactory system during development. Furthermore, our data demonstrate an unprecedented instar-specific behavioral plasticity mediated by an OR, and knocking out this OR disrupts larval behavioral plasticity. The ecological relevance of such behavioral plasticity for S. littoralis remains to be elucidated, but our results demonstrate an olfactory mechanism underlying this plasticity in foraging behavior during larval development. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12915-021-01159-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santosh V Revadi
- Department of Plant Protection Biology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Alnarp, Box 190, 23422, Lomma, Sweden. .,INRAE, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, IRD, UPEC, Université Paris Diderot, Institute of Ecology and Environmental Sciences of Paris, Department of Sensory Ecology, Route de Saint-Cyr, 78026, Versailles Cedex, France.
| | - Vito Antonio Giannuzzi
- Department of Plant Protection Biology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Alnarp, Box 190, 23422, Lomma, Sweden.,Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121, Perugia, Italy
| | - Valeria Rossi
- Department of Plant Protection Biology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Alnarp, Box 190, 23422, Lomma, Sweden.,Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121, Perugia, Italy
| | - Gert Martin Hunger
- Department of Plant Protection Biology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Alnarp, Box 190, 23422, Lomma, Sweden
| | - Lucie Conchou
- AGRIODOR, 6 rue Pierre Joseph Colin, 35000, Rennes, France
| | - Gabriele Rondoni
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121, Perugia, Italy
| | - Eric Conti
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, University of Perugia, 06121, Perugia, Italy
| | - Peter Anderson
- Department of Plant Protection Biology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Alnarp, Box 190, 23422, Lomma, Sweden
| | - William B Walker
- Department of Plant Protection Biology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Alnarp, Box 190, 23422, Lomma, Sweden.,United States Department of Agriculture - Agricultural Research Service, Temperate Tree Fruit and Vegetable Research Unit, 5230 Konnowac Pass Road, Wapato, WA, 98951, USA
| | - Emmanuelle Jacquin-Joly
- INRAE, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, IRD, UPEC, Université Paris Diderot, Institute of Ecology and Environmental Sciences of Paris, Department of Sensory Ecology, Route de Saint-Cyr, 78026, Versailles Cedex, France
| | - Fotini Koutroumpa
- INRAE, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, IRD, UPEC, Université Paris Diderot, Institute of Ecology and Environmental Sciences of Paris, Department of Sensory Ecology, Route de Saint-Cyr, 78026, Versailles Cedex, France
| | - Paul G Becher
- Department of Plant Protection Biology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Alnarp, Box 190, 23422, Lomma, Sweden
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3
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Abbas F, Ke Y, Zhou Y, Ashraf U, Li X, Yu Y, Yue Y, Ahmad KW, Yu R, Fan Y. Molecular cloning, characterization and expression analysis of LoTPS2 and LoTPS4 involved in floral scent formation in oriental hybrid Lilium variety 'Siberia'. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2020; 173:112294. [PMID: 32058861 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2020.112294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2019] [Revised: 02/02/2020] [Accepted: 02/03/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Lilies are a commercially significant cut flower worldwide due not only to their elegant shape but also to their appealing scent. Among Lilium varieties, Lilium 'Siberia' is a cultivar that is prominent and highly favored by consumers due to its snowy white color and strong floral scent. Here, two terpene synthase genes (LoTPS2 and LoTPS4) that are responsible for floral scent production in Lilium 'Siberia' were cloned and functionally characterized. Recombinant LoTPS2 specifically catalyzed the formation of (E, E)-α-farnesene from FPP. Recombinant LoTPS4 is a multiproduct enzyme that produces D-limonene and β-myrcene as major volatile compounds and β-phellandrene, (+)-4-carene and 3-carene as minor products from GPP. Furthermore, LoTPS4 generates trans-α-bergamotene as a major product and di-epi-α-cedrene, α-cubebene and (E)-β-farnesene as minor compounds from FPP. Subcellular localization analysis using GFP fusion constructs revealed that LoTPS2 was localized in the cytosol, whereas LoTPS4 was localized in plastids. Real-time PCR analysis showed that LoTPS2 was highly expressed in the petals and sepals of the flower, while LoTPS4 was highly expressed in the filament of the flower. Moreover, mechanical wounding of flowers revealed that LoTPS2 showed a strong response to wounding via a rapid increase in its mRNA transcript level. Our results will assist scientists in exploring the molecular mechanisms of terpene biosynthesis in this species and will provide new insight into the biotechnological modification of the floral bouquet in Lilium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farhat Abbas
- The Research Center for Ornamental Plants, College of Forestry and Landscape Architecture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Yanguo Ke
- The Research Center for Ornamental Plants, College of Forestry and Landscape Architecture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Yiwei Zhou
- The Research Center for Ornamental Plants, College of Forestry and Landscape Architecture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Umair Ashraf
- Department of Botany, Division of Science and Technology, University of Education, Lahore, 54770, Punjab, Pakistan
| | - Xinyue Li
- The Research Center for Ornamental Plants, College of Forestry and Landscape Architecture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Yunyi Yu
- The Research Center for Ornamental Plants, College of Forestry and Landscape Architecture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Yuechong Yue
- The Research Center for Ornamental Plants, College of Forestry and Landscape Architecture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Kanwar Waqas Ahmad
- The Research Center for Ornamental Plants, College of Forestry and Landscape Architecture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China
| | - Rangcai Yu
- College of Life Sciences, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China.
| | - Yanping Fan
- The Research Center for Ornamental Plants, College of Forestry and Landscape Architecture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China; Guangdong Key Laboratory for Innovative Development and Utilization of Forest Plant Germplasm, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, 510642, China.
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Mas F, Horner R, Cazères S, Alavi M, Suckling DM. Odorant-Based Detection and Discrimination of Two Economic Pests in Export Apples. JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY 2020; 113:134-143. [PMID: 31588516 DOI: 10.1093/jee/toz254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Detection of pest infestations in fresh produce traded internationally could offer improved prospects for reducing the movement of unwanted pests. Because immature stages of some pests can be difficult to find visually, other cues such as herbivore-induced volatiles that can potentially be detected at the early stages of infestation are worth investigating. In this study, we artificially infested postharvested apples (Malus × domestica 'Royal Gala') with two economic apple pests, the specialist codling moth (CM, Cydia pomonella Linnaeus, Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) and the generalist Queensland fruit fly (QFF, Bactrocera tryoni, Froggatt, Diptera: Tephritidae) and collected volatile organic compounds (VOCs) over time (days 0, 6, and 14-15). In both infestation experiments, we found a strong and significant interaction between time and treatment. Apples infested with the QFF emitted lower total amounts of VOCs than uninfested apples, whereas apples infested with the CM released similar total amounts of VOCs. Apples infested with CM had increases in several hexyl and butyl esters, which were particularly noticeable after 15 d. In contrast, changes in ethyl esters were characteristics of QFF infestation and could be detected from day 6. Our multilevel and multivariate statistical analysis identified specific volatile biomarkers for each species at each sampling time that can be used to design a new tool for remote detection and surveillance of these invasive pests in harvested apples. Nevertheless, other information such as the cultivar as well as the storage condition needs to be taken into consideration to increase accuracy of future odorant-based sensors for pest identification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flore Mas
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited, Biosecurity Group, PB, Christchurch, New Zealand
- Better Border Biosecurity (B3) (http://b3nz.org)
| | - Rachael Horner
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited, Biosecurity Group, PB, Christchurch, New Zealand
- Better Border Biosecurity (B3) (http://b3nz.org)
| | - Sylvie Cazères
- Institut Agronomique néo-Calédonien, Laboratoire d'Entomologie Appliquée, Station de Recherches Fruitières de Pocquereux, La Foa, New Caledonia, France
| | - Maryam Alavi
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited, Biosecurity Group, PB, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - David Maxwell Suckling
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited, Biosecurity Group, PB, Christchurch, New Zealand
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
- Better Border Biosecurity (B3) (http://b3nz.org)
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5
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Clavijo McCormick A, Arrigo L, Eggenberger H, Mescher MC, De Moraes CM. Divergent behavioural responses of gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) caterpillars from three different subspecies to potential host trees. Sci Rep 2019; 9:8953. [PMID: 31222054 PMCID: PMC6586621 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-45201-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Almost all previous work on host-plant selection by insect herbivores has focused on adult behaviour; however, immature life stages can also play an active role in host discrimination. The important forest pest Lymantria dispar (gypsy moth) has three recognised subspecies: the European, Asian, and Japanese gypsy moth. Unlike the other two subspecies, the European subspecies is characterised by a loss of female flight ability, which might impose a selective pressure on larvae to actively engage in host-plant selection. We therefore explored the interactions of early-instar larvae from laboratory colonies of each subspecies with four potential hosts of differing quality: oak, beech, maple, and pine—measuring larval survival and performance, feeding preferences, responses to host-derived odour cues, and the propensity to disperse from hosts via ballooning. Compared to larvae from the Asian and Japanese subspecies, larvae from the (American-originated) European gypsy moth colony exhibited (i) significantly lower survival on the poorest quality host (pine), (ii) an ability to discriminate among hosts via olfactory cues; and (iii) higher propensity to disperse from sub-optimal hosts. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that larvae from flightless female European Gypsy moth subspecies play a more active role in host-plant selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Clavijo McCormick
- Massey University, School of Agriculture and Environment, Private Bag 11222, 4442, Palmerston North, New Zealand.,Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zürich, Schmelzbergstrasse 9, 8092, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Luca Arrigo
- Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zürich, Schmelzbergstrasse 9, 8092, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Helen Eggenberger
- Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zürich, Schmelzbergstrasse 9, 8092, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Mark C Mescher
- Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zürich, Schmelzbergstrasse 9, 8092, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Consuelo M De Moraes
- Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zürich, Schmelzbergstrasse 9, 8092, Zürich, Switzerland.
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6
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Wearing CH. Distribution Characteristics of Eggs and Neonate Larvae of Codling Moth, Cydia pomonella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INSECT SCIENCE 2016; 8:33-53. [PMID: 27429560 PMCID: PMC4939850 DOI: 10.4137/ijis.s38587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2016] [Revised: 04/28/2016] [Accepted: 04/28/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Literature is reviewed on the spatial distribution of the eggs and neonate larvae of codling moth on apple trees in relation to research conducted in Nelson, New Zealand. At Nelson, oviposition increased with height and was greater in the north and east of the trees and in those with greater fruit load in some seasons, which matches published reports. All publications and the research recorded high percentages of eggs laid singly within 10-15 cm of the fruit, with most eggs on leaves even within fruit clusters; oviposition on fruit clusters of different sizes was nonrandom because more eggs were laid on those with more fruit, but the aggregation of both per cluster and within clusters was even greater than that caused by the fruit number alone. Oviposition at random with respect to the fruit occurred only at very low population density. The choice of oviposition site between fruit and the adaxial leaf surface and abaxial leaf surface (AbLS) was variable and cultivar related. Cultivars on which eggs predominated on the AbLS were less frequent and characterized by low trichome density. In the literature, neonate larvae from eggs on the AbLS suffered greater mortality, as did those in Nelson that hatched more distant from the fruit. This review discusses the interaction between these distribution characteristics and species-specific host-plant volatiles, egg adhesion to plant surfaces, oviposition deterrents, predation, and their relevance to pest management.
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7
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McCormick AC, Reinecke A, Gershenzon J, Unsicker SB. Feeding Experience Affects the Behavioral Response of Polyphagous Gypsy Moth Caterpillars to Herbivore-induced Poplar Volatiles. J Chem Ecol 2016; 42:382-93. [PMID: 27170157 PMCID: PMC4912982 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-016-0698-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2015] [Revised: 03/22/2016] [Accepted: 04/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Plant volatiles influence host selection of herbivorous insects. Since volatiles often vary in space and time, herbivores (especially polyphagous ones) may be able to use these compounds as cues to track variation in host plant quality based on their innate abilities and previous experience. We investigated the behavioral response of naïve (fed on artificial diet) and experienced (fed on poplar) gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) caterpillars, a polyphagous species, towards constitutive and herbivore-induced black poplar (Populus nigra) volatiles at different stages of herbivore attack. In Y-tube olfactometer assays, both naïve and experienced caterpillars were attracted to constitutive volatiles and volatiles released after short-term herbivory (up to 6 hr). Naïve caterpillars also were attracted to volatiles released after longer-term herbivory (24-30 hr), but experienced caterpillars preferred the odor of undamaged foliage. A multivariate statistical analysis comparing the volatile emission of undamaged plants vs. plants after short and longer-term herbivory, suggested various compounds as being responsible for distinguishing between the odors of these plants. Ten compounds were selected for individual testing of caterpillar behavioral responses in a four-arm olfactometer. Naïve caterpillars spent more time in arms containing (Z)-3-hexenol and (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate than in solvent permeated arms, while avoiding benzyl cyanide and salicyl aldehyde. Experienced caterpillars avoided benzyl cyanide and preferred (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate and the homoterpene (E)-4,8-dimethyl-1,3,7-nonatriene (DMNT) over solvent. Only responses to DMNT were significantly different when comparing experienced and naïve caterpillars. The results show that gypsy moth caterpillars display an innate behavioral response towards constitutive and herbivore-induced plant volatiles, but also that larval behavior is plastic and can be modulated by previous feeding experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea C McCormick
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Straße 8, 07745, Jena, Germany.
- Institute of Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, Private Bag 11222, 4442, Palmerston North, New Zealand.
| | - Andreas Reinecke
- Department of Evolutionary Neuroethology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Straße 8, 07745, Jena, Germany
- Department of Behavioral Ecology and Evolutionary Genetics, Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, Eberhard-Gwinner-Str. 7, 82319, Seewiesen, Germany
| | - Jonathan Gershenzon
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Straße 8, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Sybille B Unsicker
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Straße 8, 07745, Jena, Germany
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Crook DJ, Lance DR, Mastro VC. Identification of a potential third component of the male-produced pheromone of Anoplophora glabripennis and its effect on behavior. J Chem Ecol 2014; 40:1241-50. [PMID: 25432666 PMCID: PMC4271135 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-014-0520-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2014] [Revised: 09/25/2014] [Accepted: 11/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The Asian longhorned beetle, Anoplophora glabripennis, is considered to be one of the most serious invasive pests of deciduous trees in North America. An efficient monitoring trap is needed to detect and delimit new introductions and assess population densities of established infestations. Previous studies on A. glabripennis have shown that males produce a two-component aggregation pheromone that consists of a 1:1 blend of 4-(n-heptyloxy)butan-1-ol and 4-(n-heptyloxy)butanal. Moderate attraction in field trapping studies suggested that there may be additional chemical cues missing. Volatiles from male A. glabripennis were examined to identify other potential pheromone components. Gas chromatographic / electroantennographic (GC/EAD) analyses of male aerations detected a consistent EAD-active response to a previously unidentified compound. This compound was identified as (3E,6E)-α-farnesene. Both male and female beetles were antennally responsive to this sesquiterpene, and both sexes were attracted to it in olfactometer bioassays at different doses. When (3E,6E)-α-farnesene was combined with 4-(n-heptyloxy)butan-1-ol and 4-(n-heptyloxy)butanal, attraction of both sexes increased compared to assays using 4-(n-heptyloxy)butan-1-ol and 4-(n-heptyloxy)butanal alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damon J Crook
- Otis Laboratory, USDA APHIS PPQ CPHST, 1398 West Truck Road, Buzzards Bay, MA, 02542-1329, USA,
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Amo L, Jansen JJ, van Dam NM, Dicke M, Visser ME. Birds exploit herbivore-induced plant volatiles to locate herbivorous prey. Ecol Lett 2013; 16:1348-55. [PMID: 24103093 DOI: 10.1111/ele.12177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2013] [Revised: 07/05/2012] [Accepted: 08/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Arthropod herbivory induces plant volatiles that can be used by natural enemies of the herbivores to find their prey. This has been studied mainly for arthropods that prey upon or parasitise herbivorous arthropods but rarely for insectivorous birds, one of the main groups of predators of herbivorous insects such as lepidopteran larvae. Here, we show that great tits (Parus major) discriminate between caterpillar-infested and uninfested trees. Birds were attracted to infested trees, even when they could not see the larvae or their feeding damage. We furthermore show that infested and uninfested trees differ in volatile emissions and visual characteristics. Finally, we show, for the first time, that birds smell which tree is infested with their prey based on differences in volatile profiles emitted by infested and uninfested trees. Volatiles emitted by plants in response to herbivory by lepidopteran larvae thus not only attract predatory insects but also vertebrate predators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa Amo
- Department of Animal Ecology, Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW), P.O. Box 50, 6700 AB, Wageningen, The Netherlands; Departamento de Ecología Funcional y Evolutiva, Estación Experimental de Zonas Áridas (CSIC), Ctra, de Sacramento s/n. E-04120, La Cañada de San Urbano, Almería, Spain
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Robert CAM, Erb M, Hiltpold I, Hibbard BE, Gaillard MDP, Bilat J, Degenhardt J, Cambet-Petit-Jean X, Turlings TCJ, Zwahlen C. Genetically engineered maize plants reveal distinct costs and benefits of constitutive volatile emissions in the field. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 2013; 11:628-39. [PMID: 23425633 DOI: 10.1111/pbi.12053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2012] [Accepted: 01/11/2013] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Genetic manipulation of plant volatile emissions is a promising tool to enhance plant defences against herbivores. However, the potential costs associated with the manipulation of specific volatile synthase genes are unknown. Therefore, we investigated the physiological and ecological effects of transforming a maize line with a terpene synthase gene in field and laboratory assays, both above- and below ground. The transformation, which resulted in the constitutive emission of (E)-β-caryophyllene and α-humulene, was found to compromise seed germination, plant growth and yield. These physiological costs provide a possible explanation for the inducibility of an (E)-β-caryophyllene-synthase gene in wild and cultivated maize. The overexpression of the terpene synthase gene did not impair plant resistance nor volatile emission. However, constitutive terpenoid emission increased plant apparency to herbivores, including adults and larvae of the above ground pest Spodoptera frugiperda, resulting in an increase in leaf damage. Although terpenoid overproducing lines were also attractive to the specialist root herbivore Diabrotica virgifera virgifera below ground, they did not suffer more root damage in the field, possibly because of the enhanced attraction of entomopathogenic nematodes. Furthermore, fewer adults of the root herbivore Diabrotica undecimpunctata howardii were found to emerge near plants that emitted (E)-β-caryophyllene and α-humulene. Yet, overall, under the given field conditions, the costs of constitutive volatile production overshadowed its benefits. This study highlights the need for a thorough assessment of the physiological and ecological consequences of genetically engineering plant signals in the field to determine the potential of this approach for sustainable pest management strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christelle Aurélie Maud Robert
- Laboratory for Fundamental and Applied Research in Chemical Ecology-FARCE, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
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von Mérey GE, Veyrat N, D'Alessandro M, Turlings TCJ. Herbivore-induced maize leaf volatiles affect attraction and feeding behavior of Spodoptera littoralis caterpillars. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2013; 4:209. [PMID: 23825475 PMCID: PMC3695448 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2013.00209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2013] [Accepted: 06/02/2013] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Plants under herbivore attack emit volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that can serve as foraging cues for natural enemies. Adult females of Lepidoptera, when foraging for host plants to deposit eggs, are commonly repelled by herbivore-induced VOCs, probably to avoid competition and natural enemies. Their larval stages, on the other hand, have been shown to be attracted to inducible VOCs. We speculate that this contradicting behavior of lepidopteran larvae is due to a need to quickly find a new suitable host plant if they have fallen to the ground. However, once they are on a plant they might avoid the sites with fresh damage to limit competition and risk of cannibalism by conspecifics, as well as exposure to natural enemies. To test this we studied the effect of herbivore-induced VOCs on the attraction of larvae of the moth Spodoptera littoralis and on their feeding behavior. The experiments further considered the importance of previous feeding experience on the responses of the larvae. It was confirmed that herbivore-induced VOCs emitted by maize plants are attractive to the larvae, but exposure to the volatiles decreased the growth rate of caterpillars at early developmental stages. Larvae that had fed on maize previously were more attracted by VOCs of induced maize than larvae that had fed on artificial diet. At relatively high concentrations synthetic green leaf volatiles, indicative of fresh damage, also negatively affected the growth rate of caterpillars, but not at low concentrations. In all cases, feeding by the later stages of the larvae was not affected by the VOCs. The results are discussed in the context of larval foraging behavior under natural conditions, where there may be a trade-off between using available host plant signals and avoiding competitors and natural enemies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Ted C. J. Turlings
- *Correspondence: Ted C. J. Turlings, Laboratory for Fundamental and Applied Research in Chemical Ecology, Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Emile-Argand 11, C.P. 158, CH-2009 Neuchâtel, Switzerland e-mail:
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Silk PJ, Lemay MA, LeClair G, Sweeney J, MaGee D. Behavioral and electrophysiological responses of Tetropium fuscum (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) to pheromone and spruce volatiles. ENVIRONMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY 2010; 39:1997-2005. [PMID: 22182567 DOI: 10.1603/en10156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The brown spruce longhorn beetle, Tetropium fuscum (F.), is an invasive wood-boring species in eastern Canada. Gas chromatographic/electroantennographic (GC/EAD) analyses of Norway and red spruce volatiles detected a number of consistent EAD-active responses to compounds that are known to be stress-induced in spruce. The effects of these EAD-active compounds on various aspects of adult behavior were tested. In two-choice olfactometer assays, a monoterpene spruce blend, (R)-(-)-linalool, (3Z,6E)-α-farnesene, (E)-β-farnesene and spruce essential oil were attractive to both sexes. However, when they were combined with the male-produced pheromone (fuscumol), they elicited a sex-specific response: females were significantly attracted to combinations of fuscumol plus either (3Z,6E)-α-farnesene, (E)-β-farnesene and spruce essential oil but males were not. Fuscumol alone was unattractive to either sex in the olfactometer. Males exposed to fuscumol, (3Z,6E)-α-farnesene, or a combination of both, but not (E)-β-farnesene, were more likely to engage in the pheromone calling posture relative to controls. Both the monoterpene spruce blend and spruce essential oil elicited significantly greater trap capture of both sexes of T. fuscum in the presence of fuscumol and ethanol than (3Z,6E)-α-farnesene or (R)-(-)-linalool, which did not elicit trap capture alone or in combination with fuscumol. The data support the hypothesis that stress-induced sesquiterpene components, such as (3Z,6E)-α-farnesene, are important for mediating close-range attraction and behavior in T. fuscum while the monoterpene components are important for long-range processes (trap capture).
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Silk
- Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service-Atlantic Forestry Centre, PO Box 4000, Fredericton, New Brunswick, E3B 5P7, Canada.
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Specialist leaf beetle larvae use volatiles from willow leaves infested by conspecifics for reaggregation in a tree. J Chem Ecol 2010; 36:671-9. [PMID: 20544261 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-010-9808-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2009] [Revised: 04/26/2010] [Accepted: 05/24/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Young, gregariously living larvae of the willow leaf beetles Plagiodera versicolora are known to exhibit characteristic aggregation-dispersion-reaggregation behavior and local fidelity to a host tree. In this study, we investigated whether plant volatiles induced by feeding P. versicolora larvae were involved in the reaggregation behavior. Under laboratory conditions, we conducted dual-choice bioassays and found that the first and second instars discriminated between volatiles from leaves infested by larvae and volatiles from uninfested leaves. The discriminative behavior was dependent on both the time leaves were infested and the age of discriminating larvae. First and second instars preferred odor from 1-d-infested leaves to odor from uninfested leaves, whereas third instars (solitary stage) did not discriminate between these volatile blends. Odor from 2-d-infested leaves was preferred to odor from 1-d-infested leaves by first instars, whereas odor from leaves infested for 3 d was not attractive to these very young larvae. Neither was odor of leaves infested for 1 d and then left uninfested for 1 or 2 d attractive to young larvae. The data suggest that the first and second instars use volatiles from a leaf newly infested by conspecific larvae as one of the reaggregation cues. We detected several herbivore-induced compounds in the headspace of the attractive leaves. Among those, a mixture of synthetic (E)-beta-ocimene, (Z)-beta-ocimene, allo-ocimene, and linalool was found to attract the larvae.
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The skill and style to model the evolution of resistance to pesticides and drugs. Evol Appl 2010; 3:375-90. [PMID: 25567932 PMCID: PMC3352466 DOI: 10.1111/j.1752-4571.2010.00124.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2009] [Accepted: 02/06/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Resistance to pesticides and drugs led to the development of theoretical models aimed at identifying the main factors of resistance evolution and predicting the efficiency of resistance management strategies. We investigated the various ways in which the evolution of resistance has been modelled over the last three decades, by reviewing 187 articles published on models of the evolution of resistance to all major classes of pesticides and drugs. We found that (i) the technical properties of the model were most strongly influenced by the class of pesticide or drug and the target organism, (ii) the resistance management strategies studied were quite similar for the different classes of pesticides or drugs, except that the refuge strategy was mostly used in models of the evolution of resistance to insecticidal proteins, (iii) economic criteria were rarely used to evaluate the evolution of resistance and (iv) the influence of mutation, migration and drift on the speed of resistance development has been poorly investigated. We propose guidelines for the future development of theoretical models of the evolution of resistance. For instance, we stress the potential need to give more emphasis to the three evolutionary forces migration, mutation and genetic drift rather than simply selection.
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Vogler U, Rott AS, Gessler C, Dorn S. Comparison between volatile emissions from transgenic apples and from two representative classically bred apple cultivars. Transgenic Res 2009; 19:77-89. [DOI: 10.1007/s11248-009-9294-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2008] [Accepted: 06/04/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Mooney AC, Robertson HM, Wanner KW. Neonate Silkworm (Bombyx mori) Larvae Are Attracted to Mulberry (Morus alba) Leaves with Conspecific Feeding Damage. J Chem Ecol 2009; 35:552-9. [DOI: 10.1007/s10886-009-9639-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2008] [Revised: 03/29/2009] [Accepted: 04/26/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Common volatiles are major attractants for neonate larvae of the specialist flea beetle Altica koreana (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). Naturwissenschaften 2008; 95:639-45. [DOI: 10.1007/s00114-008-0367-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2006] [Revised: 10/31/2007] [Accepted: 02/15/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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The Attraction of Spodoptera frugiperda Neonates to Cowpea Seedlings is Mediated by Volatiles Induced by Conspecific Herbivory and the Elicitor Inceptin. J Chem Ecol 2008; 34:291-300. [DOI: 10.1007/s10886-007-9414-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2006] [Accepted: 12/04/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Witzgall P, Stelinski L, Gut L, Thomson D. Codling moth management and chemical ecology. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ENTOMOLOGY 2008; 53:503-22. [PMID: 17877451 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.ento.53.103106.093323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Lepidopteran insects use sex pheromones to communicate for mating. Olfactory communication and mate-finding can be prevented by permeating the atmosphere with synthetic pheromone. Pheromone-mediated mating disruption has become a commercially viable pest management technique and is used to control the codling moth, Cydia pomonella, a key insect pest of apple, on 160,000 ha worldwide. The codling moth sex pheromone, codlemone, is species specific and nontoxic. Orchard treatments with up to 100 grams of synthetic codlemone per hectare effectively control codling moth populations over the entire growing season. Practical implementation of the mating disruption technique has been realized at an opportune time, as codling moth has become resistant to many insecticides. We review codling moth chemical ecology and factors underlying the behavioral mechanisms and practical implementation of mating disruption. Area-wide programs are the result of collaborative efforts between academic research institutions, extension, chemical industries, and grower organizations, and they demonstrate the environmental and economic relevance of pheromone research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Witzgall
- Chemical Ecology Group, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-230 53, Alnarp, Sweden.
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Carroll MJ, Schmelz EA, Meagher RL, Teal PEA. Attraction of Spodoptera frugiperda Larvae to Volatiles from Herbivore-Damaged Maize Seedlings. J Chem Ecol 2006; 32:1911-24. [PMID: 16902828 DOI: 10.1007/s10886-006-9117-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2006] [Revised: 03/28/2006] [Accepted: 04/28/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Plants respond to insect attack with the induction of volatiles that function as indirect plant defenses through the attraction of natural enemies to the herbivores. Despite the fact that volatiles are induced in response to caterpillar attack, their reciprocal effects on the host location behaviors of the same foraging herbivores are poorly understood. We examined orientation responses of sixth instar fall armyworm [FAW; Spodoptera frugiperda (Smith)] to odors from herbivore-damaged and undamaged maize seedlings (Zea mays var. Golden Queen) in y-tube olfactometer bioassays. While both damaged and undamaged maize seedlings were attractive compared with air, sixth instars preferred odors from damaged maize seedlings over odors from undamaged maize seedlings. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of plant volatiles revealed that linalool and 4,8-dimethyl-1,3,7-nonatriene were the major volatiles induced by FAW herbivory 6 hr after initial damage. Given its prominence in induced plants and established attractiveness to adult FAW, linalool was evaluated both as an individual attractant and as a supplemental component of whole plant odors. Volatile linalool was more attractive than air to sixth instar FAW over a broad range of release rates. FAW also responded selectively to different amounts of linalool, preferring the higher amount. The orientation preferences of FAW were readily manipulated through capillary release of linalool into the airstream of whole plant odors. FAW preferred linalool over undamaged plant odors, and linalool-supplemented plant odors over unsupplemented plant odors, indicating that olfactory preferences could be changed by alteration of a single volatile component. These results suggest that although many induced volatiles attract natural enemies of herbivores, these defenses may also inadvertently recruit more larval herbivores to an attacked plant or neighboring conspecifics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark J Carroll
- Center for Medical, Agricultural, and Veterinary Entomology, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Chemistry Research Unit, Agricultural Research Service, 1700 SW 23rd Drive, Gainesville, FL, 32608, USA
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Pszczolkowski MA, Brown JJ. Single experience learning of host fruit selection by lepidopteran larvae. Physiol Behav 2005; 86:168-75. [PMID: 16098544 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2005.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2005] [Accepted: 07/06/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Neonate larvae of a lepidopteran, the codling moth (Cydia pomonella L.) search for their host fruit after hatch. The process of host searching is known to be activated by kairomones contained in host fruit volatiles, but the mechanism of actual selection and infestation of the fruit is unclear. Here we show that lepidopteran neonates can utilize single experience learning in selection and infestation of host apple. We found that the process of host fruit selection may be modified by single experience learning, namely preference induction or averse conditioning. Both types of learning were acquired within 3 h of training. Experience was retained for over 3 days in the case of averse conditioning. Preference induction, a form of learning specific to insects, is expected to produce rigid host preference lasting for days if not weeks, but in codling moth neonates this type of memory was retained only for 3 h. We speculate that conjunction of preference induction with short retention time and averse conditioning with long retention time provide an optimal adaptive strategy of host fruit selection for codling moth neonates.
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Vallat A, Gu H, Dorn S. How rainfall, relative humidity and temperature influence volatile emissions from apple trees in situ. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2005; 66:1540-50. [PMID: 15949824 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2005.04.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2004] [Revised: 04/20/2005] [Accepted: 04/26/2005] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Headspace volatiles from apple-bearing twigs were collected in the field with a Radiello sampler during three different diurnal periods over the complete fruit growing season. Analyses by thermal desorption-GC-MS identified a total of 62 compounds in changing quantities, including the terpenoids alpha-pinene, camphene, beta-pinene, limonene, beta-caryophyllene and (E,E)-alpha-farnesene, the aldehydes (E)-2-hexenal, benzaldehyde and nonanal, and the alcohol (Z)-3-hexen-1-ol. The variations in emission of these plant odours were statistically related to temperature, humidity and rainfall in the field. Remarkably, rainfall had a significant positive influence on changes in volatile release during all three diurnal periods, and further factors of significance were temperature and relative humidity around noon, relative humidity in the late afternoon, and temperature and relative humidity during the night. Rainfall was associated consistently with an increase in the late afternoon in terpene and aldehyde volatiles with a known repellent effect on the codling moth, one of the key pests of apple fruit. During the summer of 2003, a season characterized by below-average rainfall, some postulated effects of drought on trees were tested by establishing correlations with rainfall. Emissions of the wood terpenes alpha-pinene, beta-pinene and limonene were negatively correlated with rainfall. Another monoterpene, camphene, was only detected in this summer but not in the previous years, and its emissions were negatively correlated with rainfall, further supporting the theory that drought can result in higher formation of secondary metabolites. Finally, the two green leaf volatiles (E)-2-hexenal and (Z)-3-hexen-1-ol were negatively correlated with rainfall, coinciding well with the expectation that water deficit stress increases activity of lipoxygenase. To our knowledge, this work represents the first empirical study concerning the influence of abiotic factors on volatile emissions from apple trees in situ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armelle Vallat
- Institute of Plant Sciences, Applied Entomology, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), CH-8092 Zurich, Switzerland
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Wei S, Reuveny H, Bravdo BA, Shoseyov O. Hydrolysis of glycosidically bound volatiles from apple leaves (Cv. Anna) by Aspergillus niger beta-glucosidase affects the behavior of codling moth (Cydia pomonella L.). JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2004; 52:6212-6216. [PMID: 15453689 DOI: 10.1021/jf0495789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Glycosidically bound volatiles released from apple leaf extracts (cv. Anna) were analyzed by solid-phase microextraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (SPME-GC-MS) and their behavioral effects on codling moth (CM) adults were evaluated in cage bioassays. The levels of 1-octanol, linalool, geraniol, benzyl alcohol, methyl salicylate, (2R,5R)-theaspirane, and (2S,5R)-theaspirane were significantly increased in the leaf extracts containing the Aspergillus niger beta-glucosidase (BGL1) compared to the extracts containing the glucoimidazole. The attractiveness of individual compounds to CM adults was found in the following decreasing order: methyl salicylate and mixture of two theaspirane isomers, followed by linalool and benzyl alcohol. Geraniol was found to be repellent to CM adults. The addition of geraniol (39.4 ng mL(-1)) to any of the individual volatiles or to a mixture of these attractants eliminated their attractiveness. Our data suggest the possible application of geraniol as a repellent and methyl salicylate or theaspiranes as attractants for the integrated control of CM in apple orchards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu Wei
- The Robert H. Smith Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Quality Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, P.O. Box 12, Rehovot, Israel
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Campbell BC, Molyneux RJ, Schatzki TF. Current Research on Reducing Pre‐ and Post‐harvest Aflatoxin Contamination of U.S. Almond, Pistachio, and Walnut. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1081/txr-120024093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Zalucki MP, Clarke AR, Malcolm SB. Ecology and behavior of first instar larval Lepidoptera. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ENTOMOLOGY 2002; 47:361-93. [PMID: 11729079 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.ento.47.091201.145220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Neonate Lepidoptera are confronted with the daunting task of establishing themselves on a food plant. The factors relevant to this process need to be considered at spatial and temporal scales relevant to the larva and not the investigator. Neonates have to cope with an array of plant surface characters as well as internal characters once the integument is ruptured. These characters, as well as microclimatic conditions, vary within and between plant modules and interact with larval feeding requirements, strongly affecting movement behavior, which may be extensive even for such small organisms. In addition to these factors, there is an array of predators, pathogens, and parasitoids with which first instars must contend. Not surprisingly, mortality in neonates is high but can vary widely. Experimental and manipulative studies, as well as detailed observations of the animal, are vital if the subtle interaction of factors responsible for this high and variable mortality are to be understood. These studies are essential for an understanding of theories linking female oviposition behavior with larval survival, plant defense theory, and population dynamics, as well as modern crop resistance breeding programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myron P Zalucki
- Department of Zoology and Entomology, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
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