Stormwater treatment for reuse: Current practice and future development - A review

Stormwater harvesting is an effective measure to mitigate flooding risk and pollutant migration in our urban environment with the continuously increasing impermeable faction. Treatment of harvested stormwater also provides the fit-for-purpose water sources as an alternative to potable water supply ensuring the reliability and sustainability of the water management in the living complex. In order to provide the water management decision-maker with a broad range of related technology database and to facilitate the implementation of stormwater harvesting in the future, a comprehensive review was undertaken to understand the corresponding treatment performance, the applicable circumstances of current stormwater treatment and harvesting technologies. Technologies with promising potential for stormwater treatment were also reviewed to investigate the feasibility of being used in an integrated process. The raw stormwater quality and the required quality for different levels of stormwater reuses (irrigation, recreational, and potable) were reviewed and compared. The required level of treatment is defined for different 'fit-for-purpose' uses of harvested stormwater. Stormwater biofilter and constructed wetland as the two most advanced and widely used stormwater harvesting and treatment technologies, their main functionality, treatment performance and adequate scale of the application were reviewed based on published peer-reviewed articles and case studies. Excessive microbial effluent that exists in stormwater treated using these two technologies has restricted the stormwater reuse in most cases. Water disinfection technologies developed for wastewater and surface water treatment but with high potential to be used for stormwater treatment have been reviewed. Their feasibility and limitation for stormwater treatment are presented with respect to different levels of fit-for-purpose reuses. Implications for future implementation of stormwater treatment are made on proposing treatment trains that are suitable for different fit-for-purpose stormwater reuses.

Mechanistic insights into 2,4-D photoelectrocatalytic removal from water with TiO2 nanotubes under dark and solar light irradiation

Removal of recalcitrant pollutants from water is a major challenge, to which the photoelectrocatalytic processes may be a solution. Applied potential plays a key role in the photocatalytic activity of the semiconductor. This paper investigated the effect of applied potential on the photoelectrocatalytic oxidation of 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) with TiO₂ nanotubular anodes under solar light irradiation. The process was investigated at constant potentials in different regions of the polarization curve: the ohmic region, the saturation region and in the region of the Schottky barrier breakdown. PEC tests were performed in aqueous solutions of 2,4-D, and in the presence of methanol or formic acid, as scavengers of OH^• radicals and holes. Results showed the main mechanism is oxidation by OH^• radicals from water oxidation, while runs with hole scavenger revealed a second mechanism of direct oxidation by holes photogenerated at the electrode surface, with high removal rates due to current doubling effect.

Electrochemical degradation of Mordant Blue 13 azo dye using boron-doped diamond and dimensionally stable anodes: influence of experimental parameters and water matrix

In this work, the electrooxidation as environmentally clean technology has been studied to the degradation of Mordant Blue 13 azo dye (MB13) using boron-doped diamond (p-Si/BDD) and oxide ruthenium titanium (Ti/Ru_0.3Ti_0.7O₂ (DSA)) anodes in various water matrices: distilled water (DW), hot tap water (HTW), and simulated wastewaters with (SWS) and without surfactant (SW). The influence of experimental parameters, such as current density, initial dye concentration, electrolysis time/specific charge, and pH on the MB13 degradation rate, current efficiency, and energy consumption, has been determined. The enhanced rate of both color and chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal in sulfate aqueous solutions with BDD was observed, which indicates that sulfate (SO₄^-•) radicals along with ^•OH ones might be responsible for the degradation process. The MB13 decolorization process obeyed a pseudo-first-order reaction kinetics with the apparent rate constant from 7.36 × 10^-2 min^-1 to 4.39 × 10^-1 min^-1 for BDD and from 9.2 × 10^-3 min^-1 to 2.11 × 10^-2 min^-1 for DSA depending on the electrolysis conditions. The effect of water matrix on the decolorization and COD removal efficiency has been evaluated. Inorganic ions, mordant salt, and surfactant contained in simulated effluents decelerated the COD decay compared to DW and HTW for the both anodes; meanwhile, they differently affected the discoloration process. A comparison of the specific energy consumption for each electrocatalytic material under different experiment conditions has been made. The BDD electrode was more efficient than the DSA to oxidize the MB13 dye in all kinds of water.

An Innovative Porous Nanocomposite Material for the Removal of Phenolic Compounds from Aqueous Solutions

Energy efficient, low-cost, user-friendly, and green methods for the removal of toxic phenolic compounds from aqueous solution are necessary for waste treatment in industrial applications. Herein we present an interesting approach for the utilization of oxidized carbon nanotubes (CNTs) in the removal of phenolic compounds from aqueous solution. Dried pristine CNTs were stably incorporated in a solid porous support of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) facilitating the handling during both oxidation process of the nanomaterial and uptake of phenolic compounds, and enabling their safe disposal, avoiding expensive post-treatment processes. The adsorption studies indicated that the materials can efficiently remove phenolic compounds from water with different affinities towards different phenolic compounds. Furthermore, the adsorption kinetics and isotherms were studied in detail. The experimental data of adsorption fitted well with Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms, and pseudo-second-order kinetics, and the results indicated that the adsorption process was controlled by a two-step intraparticle diffusion model. The incorporation of CNTs in polymeric matrices did not affect their functionality in phenol uptake. The material was also successfully used for the removal of phenolic compounds from agricultural waste, suggesting its possible application in the treatment of wastewater. Moreover, the surface of the material could be regenerated, decreasing treatment costs.

Temperature-induced phase changes in bismuth oxides and efficient photodegradation of phenol and p-chlorophenol

A novel, simple and efficient approach for photodegrading phenol and p-chlorophenol, based on BixOy, was reported for the first time. Monoclinic Bi2O4 was prepared by the hydrothermal treatment of NaBiO3·2H2O. A series of interesting phase transitions happened and various bismuth oxides (Bi4O7, β-Bi2O3 and α-Bi2O3) were obtained by sintering Bi2O4 at different temperatures. The results demonstrated that the Bi2O4 and Bi4O7 phase had strong abilities towards the oxidative decomposition of phenol and p-chlorophenol and very high rates of TOC removal were observed. The characterization by XRD and XPS revealed that Bi(4+) in Bi2O4 and Bi(3.5+) in Bi4O7 were reduced to Bi(3+) during the reaction process. Singlet oxygen ((1)O2) was identified as the major reactive species generated by Bi2O4 and Bi4O7 for the photodegradation of p-chlorophenol and phenol. This novel approach could be used as a highly efficient and green technology for treating wastewaters contaminated by high concentrations of phenol and chlorophenols.

Single and Coupled Electrochemical Processes and Reactors for the Abatement of Organic Water Pollutants: A Critical Review

Traditional physicochemical and biological techniques, as well as advanced oxidation processes (AOPs), are often inadequate, ineffective, or expensive for industrial water reclamation. Within this context, the electrochemical technologies have found a niche where they can become dominant in the near future, especially for the abatement of biorefractory substances. In this critical review, some of the most promising electrochemical tools for the treatment of wastewater contaminated by organic pollutants are discussed in detail with the following goals: (1) to present the fundamental aspects of the selected processes; (2) to discuss the effect of both the main operating parameters and the reactor design on their performance; (3) to critically evaluate their advantages and disadvantages; and (4) to forecast the prospect of their utilization on an applicable scale by identifying the key points to be further investigated. The review is focused on the direct electrochemical oxidation, the indirect electrochemical oxidation mediated by electrogenerated active chlorine, and the coupling between anodic and cathodic processes. The last part of the review is devoted to the critical assessment of the reactors that can be used to put these technologies into practice.

Electrochemical advanced oxidation processes: today and tomorrow. A review

In recent years, new advanced oxidation processes based on the electrochemical technology, the so-called electrochemical advanced oxidation processes (EAOPs), have been developed for the prevention and remediation of environmental pollution, especially focusing on water streams. These methods are based on the electrochemical generation of a very powerful oxidizing agent, such as the hydroxyl radical ((•)OH) in solution, which is then able to destroy organics up to their mineralization. EAOPs include heterogeneous processes like anodic oxidation and photoelectrocatalysis methods, in which (•)OH are generated at the anode surface either electrochemically or photochemically, and homogeneous processes like electro-Fenton, photoelectro-Fenton, and sonoelectrolysis, in which (•)OH are produced in the bulk solution. This paper presents a general overview of the application of EAOPs on the removal of aqueous organic pollutants, first reviewing the most recent works and then looking to the future. A global perspective on the fundamentals and experimental setups is offered, and laboratory-scale and pilot-scale experiments are examined and discussed.

Electrochemical treatment of phenolic waters in presence of chloride with boron-doped diamond (BDD) anodes: experimental study and mathematical model

This work deals with an experimental and numerical study on the electrochemical treatment of waters containing phenolic compounds with boron-doped diamond (BDD) anodes. Anodic oxidation of m-cresol, as a model of phenolic compound, was investigated by galvanostatic electrolyses. The electrolyses were carried out under different experimental conditions by using an impinging-jet flow cell inserted in a hydraulic circuit in a closed loop. On the basis of the experimental results a mathematical model was implemented to simulate the effect of the chemistry of organic compounds and solution on the process, in particular the effect of chlorides on the kinetics of m-cresol oxidation. The effect of hydrodynamics of the cell on the mass transfer towards the electrode surface was also considered. The model was validated through comparison with experimental data: the results showed that the proposed model well interpreted the complex effect on removal efficiency of such operative parameters as current density, hydrodynamic of the reactor and chemistry of the solution. The model predictions were utilised to obtain quantitative information on the reaction mechanism, as well as to predict the performance of the process under different operative conditions, by calculating some relevant figures of merit.

Removal of colour and COD from wastewater containing acid blue 22 by electrochemical oxidation

Electrochemical oxidation of synthetic wastewater containing acid blue 22 on a boron-doped diamond electrode (BDD) was studied, using cyclic voltammetry and bulk electrolysis. The influence of current density, dye concentration, flow rate, and temperature was investigated, in order to find the best conditions for COD and colour removal. It was found that, during oxidation, a polymeric film, causing BDD deactivation, was formed in the potential region of water stability, and that it was removed by anodic polarisation at high potentials in the region of O(2) evolution. Bulk electrolysis results showed that the electrochemical process was suitable for completely removing COD and effectively decolourising wastewaters, due to the production of hydroxyl radicals on the diamond surface. In particular, under optimal experimental conditions of flow rates (i.e. 300 dm(3) h(-1)) and current density (i.e. 20 mA cm(-2)), 97% of COD was removed in 12h electrolysis, with 70 kWh m(-3) energy consumption.

Enhanced electrochemical oxidation of phenol by introducing ferric ions and UV radiation

The mineralization of phenol in aerated electrochemical oxidation has been investigated. The results show that a cathodic Fenton process can occur when the Ti-0.3Mo-0.8Ni alloy material is used as cathode in solution containing ferric or ferrous ions; moreover, the reinforcement of cathodic Fenton process on the total organic carbon (TOC) removal rate of phenol is quite distinct. Among the metallic ions investigated, the ferric ion is the best catalyst for the electrochemical mineralization of phenol at initial pH 2.0, and the optimal concentration range is from 50 to 200 mg/L. The favorable pH range and supporting electrolyte (Na2SO4) concentration for mineralization of phenol in solution containing ferrous ions are 1.8-2.3 and below 0.10 mol/L, respectively. UV radiation can improve the TOC removal rate of phenol, but the enhanced effect varies in different solutions. In the solution containing ferric ions, an equal sum or synergetic effect can be observed. The optimal effect of electrolysis system under UV radiation is achieved in the solution containing 50 mg/L Fe3+ with a final removal percentage of 81.3%.

Advanced oxidation processes for the treatment of olive-oil mills wastewater

In this work, the treatment of an actual industrial waste with three advanced oxidation processes (AOP) has been studied: conductive-diamond electrooxidation (CDEO), ozonation and Fenton oxidation. The wastewater comes from olive-oil mills (OMW) and contains a COD of nearly 3000 mg dm(-3). CDEO allowed achieving the complete mineralization of the waste with high current efficiencies. Likewise, both ozonation and Fenton oxidation were able to treat the wastes, but they obtained very different results in terms of efficiency and mineralization. The accumulation of oxidation-refractory compounds as final products excludes the use of ozonation and Fenton oxidation as a sole treatment technology. This confirms that besides the hydroxyl-radical mediated oxidation, CDEO combines other important oxidation processes such as the direct electro-oxidation on the diamond surface and the oxidation mediated by other electrochemically formed compounds generated on this electrode.