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Dong J, Huang C, Guo S, Xia Y, Hou Y, Yang C, Zhang X, Jie J, Zhu BZ, Su H. Free-Radical-Mediated Photoinduced Electron Transfer between 6-Thioguanine and Tryptophan Leading to DNA-Protein-Like Cross-Link. J Phys Chem B 2021; 126:14-22. [PMID: 34951313 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.1c03380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The nucleobase analog 6-thioguanine (6-TG) has emerged as important immunosuppressant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer drug in the past few decades, but its unique photosensitivity of absorbing strongly ultraviolet UVA light elicits photochemical hazards in many ways. The particularly intriguing yet unresolved question is whether the direct photoreaction of 6-TG can promote DNA-protein cross-links (DPCs) formation, which are large DNA adducts blocking DNA replication and physically impede DNA-related processes. Herein, by real-time observation of radical intermediates using time-resolved UV-vis absorption spectroscopy in conjunction with product analysis by HPLC-MS, we discover that UVA excitation of 6-TG triggers direct covalent cross-linking with tryptophan (TrpH) via an exquisite radical mechanism of electron transfer. The photoexcitation prepares the redox-active triplet 36-TG*, which initiates electron transfer with TrpH, creating TrpH•+ and 6-TG•- in the first step. The deprotonated Trp• undergoes radical-recombination with its geminate partner 6-TG•- and eliminates a H2S, leading to the cross-linking product 6-TG-Trp. The photoadduct structures (two chiral isomers and one constitutional isomer) are identified unambiguously, validating further the mechanism. These findings pinpoint the exact amino acid that is vulnerable to photo-cross-linking with 6-TG and establish a mechanistic framework for understanding mutagenic DPCs formation and developing photoprobes based on this new type of photo-cross-linking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junjie Dong
- College of Chemistry, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, P. R. China
| | - Chunhua Huang
- State Key Lab of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, P. R. China
| | - Shaoshi Guo
- College of Chemistry, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, P. R. China
| | - Ye Xia
- College of Chemistry, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, P. R. China
| | - Yue Hou
- College of Chemistry, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, P. R. China
| | - Chunfan Yang
- College of Chemistry, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, P. R. China
| | - Xianwang Zhang
- College of Chemistry, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, P. R. China
| | - Jialong Jie
- College of Chemistry, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, P. R. China
| | - Ben-Zhan Zhu
- State Key Lab of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, P. R. China
| | - Hongmei Su
- College of Chemistry, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, P. R. China
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2
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Saigusa H, Oyama A, Kitamura S, Asami H. Structural Characterization of 6-Thioguanosine and Its Monohydrate in the Gas Phase. J Phys Chem A 2021; 125:7217-7225. [PMID: 34433270 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.1c05219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Detailed structural analysis of 6-thioguanosine (6TGs) in relation to its tautomerization and sugar conformation is performed in the gas phase using UV and IR spectroscopy combined with ab initio calculations. We have observed a thiol tautomer of 6TGs with its sugar moiety in the syn conformation that is stabilized by a strong intramolecular H-bonding between O5'H of the sugar and N3 atom of the guanine moiety. This observation is consistent with previous results for guanosine (Gs) in which the corresponding enol form is solely detected. We have also identified a monohydrate of 6TGs consisting of a thiol tautomer with the water linking guanine moiety and sugar OH group. It is demonstrated that hydration behavior of 6TGs is significantly different from that of Gs as a result of a weaker H-bonding ability of the thiol group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Saigusa
- Graduate School for Bio- and Nanosystem Sciences, Yokohama City University, Yokohama 236-0027, Japan
| | - Ayumi Oyama
- Graduate School for Bio- and Nanosystem Sciences, Yokohama City University, Yokohama 236-0027, Japan
| | - Saki Kitamura
- Graduate School for Bio- and Nanosystem Sciences, Yokohama City University, Yokohama 236-0027, Japan
| | - Hiroya Asami
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Gakushuin University, 1-5-1 Mejiro, Toshima-ku, Tokyo 171-8588, Japan
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Thiopurines' Metabolites and Drug Toxicity: A Meta-Analysis. J Clin Med 2020; 9:jcm9072216. [PMID: 32668748 PMCID: PMC7408995 DOI: 10.3390/jcm9072216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2020] [Revised: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 07/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Many questions remain unanswered regarding therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) utility with thiopurines. This study aims to establish a relationship between thiopurines' metabolites and drug toxicity. We performed a systematic review with inclusion of studies evaluating the relationship between thiopurines' metabolites and drug toxicity. Meta-analysis of mean difference (MD), correlations and odds ratio (OR) was performed. We identified 21,240 records, 72 of which were eligible for meta-analysis. Levels of 6-thioguanine nucleotides (6-TGN) were higher in patients with leukopenia (MD 127.06 pmol/8 × 108 RBC) and gastrointestinal intolerance (MD 201.46 pmol/8 × 108 RBC), and lower in patients with hepatotoxicity (MD -40.6 pmol × 108 RBC). We established a significant correlation between 6-TGN and leukocytes (r = -0.21), neutrophils (r = -0.24) and alanine aminotransferase levels (r = -0.24). OR for leukopenia in patients with elevated 6-TGN was 4.63 (95%CI 2.24; 9.57). An optimal cut-off of 135 pmol/8 × 108 RBC for leukopenia was calculated (sensitivity 75.4%; specificity 46.4%). 6-methylmercaptopurine ribonucleotides (6-MMPR) were significantly associated with hepatotoxicity (MD 3241.2 pmol/8 × 108 RBC; OR 4.28; 95%CI 3.20; 5.71). Levels of 6-MMPR measured in the first 8 weeks of treatment were associated with leukopenia. We conclude that TDM could be used to prevent thiopurines' toxicity. As optimal metabolites level may vary according to indication, physicians may adapt posology to decrease toxicity without compromising efficacy.
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Zhu X, Chao K, Li M, Xie W, Zheng H, Zhang JX, Hu PJ, Huang M, Gao X, Wang XD. Nucleoside diphosphate-linked moiety X-type motif 15 R139C genotypes impact 6-thioguanine nucleotide cut-off levels to predict thiopurine-induced leukopenia in Crohn’s disease patients. World J Gastroenterol 2019; 25:5850-5861. [PMID: 31636477 PMCID: PMC6801191 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v25.i38.5850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2019] [Revised: 09/05/2019] [Accepted: 09/10/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Thiopurine-induced leukopenia (TIL) is a life-threatening toxicity and occurs with a high frequency in the Asian population. Although nucleoside diphosphate-linked moiety X-type motif 15 (NUDT15) variants significantly improve the predictive sensitivity of TIL, more than 50% of cases of this toxicity cannot be predicted by this mutation. The potential use of the 6-thioguanine nucleotide (6TGN) level to predict TIL has been explored, but no decisive conclusion has been reached. Can we increase the predictive sensitivity based on 6TGN by subgrouping patients according to their NUDT15 R139C genotypes?
AIM To determine the 6TGN cut-off levels after dividing patients into subgroups according to their NUDT15 R139C genotypes.
METHODS Patients’ clinical and epidemiological characteristics were collected from medical records from July 2014 to February 2017. NUDT15 R139C, thiopurine S-methyltransferase, and 6TGN concentrations were measured.
RESULTS A total of 411 Crohn’s disease patients were included. TIL was observed in 72 individuals with a median 6TGN level of 323.4 pmol/8 × 108 red blood cells (RBC), which was not different from that of patients without TIL (P = 0.071). Then, we compared the 6TGN levels based on NUDT15 R139C. For CC (n = 342) and CT (n = 65) genotypes, the median 6TGN level in patients with TIL was significantly higher than that in patients without (474.8 vs 306.0 pmol/8 × 108 RBC, P = 9.4 × 10-5; 291.7 vs 217.6 pmol/8 × 108 RBC, P = 0.039, respectively). The four TT carriers developed TIL, with a median 6TGN concentration of 135.8 pmol/8 × 108 RBC. The 6TGN cut-off levels were 411.5 and 319.2 pmol/8 × 108 RBC for the CC and CT groups, respectively.
CONCLUSION The predictive sensitivity of TIL based on 6TGN is dramatically increased after subgrouping according to NUDT15 R139C genotypes. Applying 6TGN cut-off levels to adjust thiopurine therapies based on NUDT15 is strongly recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xia Zhu
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510000, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Kang Chao
- Department of Gastroenterology, the Sixth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510000, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Miao Li
- Department of Gastroenterology, the Sixth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510000, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Wen Xie
- Center for Pharmacogenetics and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, United States
| | - Hong Zheng
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510000, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Jin-Xin Zhang
- School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510000, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Pin-Jin Hu
- Department of Gastroenterology, the Sixth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510000, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Min Huang
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510000, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Xiang Gao
- Department of Gastroenterology, the Sixth Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510000, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Xue-Ding Wang
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510000, Guangdong Province, China
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Mai S, Mohamadzade A, Marquetand P, González L, Ullrich S. Simulated and Experimental Time-Resolved Photoelectron Spectra of the Intersystem Crossing Dynamics in 2-Thiouracil. Molecules 2018; 23:E2836. [PMID: 30388739 PMCID: PMC6278540 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23112836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2018] [Revised: 10/25/2018] [Accepted: 10/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
We report time-dependent photoelectron spectra recorded with a single-photon ionization setup and extensive simulations of the same spectra for the excited-state dynamics of 2-thiouracil (2TU) in the gas phase. We find that single-photon ionization produces very similar results as two-photon ionization, showing that the probe process does not have a strong influence on the measured dynamics. The good agreement between the single-photon ionization experiments and the simulations shows that the norms of Dyson orbitals allow for qualitatively describing the ionization probabilities of 2TU. This reasonable performance of Dyson norms is attributed to the particular electronic structure of 2TU, where all important neutral and ionic states involve similar orbital transitions and thus the shape of the Dyson orbitals do not strongly depend on the initial neutral and final ionic state. We argue that similar situations should also occur in other biologically relevant thio-nucleobases, and that the time-resolved photoelectron spectra of these bases could therefore be adequately modeled with the techniques employed here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Mai
- Institute of Theoretical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 17, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Abed Mohamadzade
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA.
| | - Philipp Marquetand
- Institute of Theoretical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 17, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Leticia González
- Institute of Theoretical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 17, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Susanne Ullrich
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA.
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Tsesmetzis N, Paulin CBJ, Rudd SG, Herold N. Nucleobase and Nucleoside Analogues: Resistance and Re-Sensitisation at the Level of Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics and Metabolism. Cancers (Basel) 2018; 10:cancers10070240. [PMID: 30041457 PMCID: PMC6071274 DOI: 10.3390/cancers10070240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2018] [Revised: 07/18/2018] [Accepted: 07/20/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Antimetabolites, in particular nucleobase and nucleoside analogues, are cytotoxic drugs that, starting from the small field of paediatric oncology, in combination with other chemotherapeutics, have revolutionised clinical oncology and transformed cancer into a curable disease. However, even though combination chemotherapy, together with radiation, surgery and immunotherapy, can nowadays cure almost all types of cancer, we still fail to achieve this for a substantial proportion of patients. The understanding of differences in metabolism, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and tumour biology between patients that can be cured and patients that cannot, builds the scientific basis for rational therapy improvements. Here, we summarise current knowledge of how tumour-specific and patient-specific factors can dictate resistance to nucleobase/nucleoside analogues, and which strategies of re-sensitisation exist. We revisit well-established hurdles to treatment efficacy, like the blood-brain barrier and reduced deoxycytidine kinase activity, but will also discuss the role of novel resistance factors, such as SAMHD1. A comprehensive appreciation of the complex mechanisms that underpin the failure of chemotherapy will hopefully inform future strategies of personalised medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolaos Tsesmetzis
- Childhood Cancer Research Unit, Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Cynthia B J Paulin
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Oncology-Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, 171 65 Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Sean G Rudd
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Oncology-Pathology, Karolinska Institutet, 171 65 Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Nikolas Herold
- Childhood Cancer Research Unit, Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, 171 77 Stockholm, Sweden.
- Paediatric Oncology, Theme of Children's and Women's Health, Karolinska University Hospital Solna, 171 76 Stockholm, Sweden.
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7
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Abstract
Here we present the excited state dynamics of jet-cooled 6-thioguanine (6-TG), using resonance-enhanced multiphoton ionization (REMPI), IR-UV double resonance spectroscopy, and pump-probe spectroscopy in the nanosecond and picosecond time domains. We report data on two thiol tautomers, which appear to have different excited state dynamics. These decay to a dark state, possibly a triplet state, with rates depending on tautomer form and on excitation wavelength, with the fastest rate on the order of 1010 s-1. We also compare 6-TG with 9-enolguanine, for which we observed decay to a dark state with a 2 orders of magnitude smaller rate. At increased excitation energy (∼+500 cm-1) an additional pathway appears for the predominant thiol tautomer. Moreover, the excited state dynamics for 6-TG thiols is different from that recently predicted for thiones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faady M Siouri
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara, California 93016-9510, United States
| | - Samuel Boldissar
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara, California 93016-9510, United States
| | - Jacob A Berenbeim
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara, California 93016-9510, United States
| | - Mattanjah S de Vries
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara, California 93016-9510, United States
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8
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Arslancan S, Martínez-Fernández L, Corral I. Photophysics and Photochemistry of Canonical Nucleobases’ Thioanalogs: From Quantum Mechanical Studies to Time Resolved Experiments. Molecules 2017. [PMCID: PMC6152766 DOI: 10.3390/molecules22060998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Interest in understanding the photophysics and photochemistry of thiated nucleobases has been awakened because of their possible involvement in primordial RNA or their potential use as photosensitizers in medicinal chemistry. The interpretation of the photodynamics of these systems, conditioned by their intricate potential energy surfaces, requires the powerful interplay between experimental measurements and state of the art molecular simulations. In this review, we provide an overview on the photophysics of natural nucleobases’ thioanalogs, which covers the last 30 years and both experimental and computational contributions. For all the canonical nucleobase’s thioanalogs, we have compiled the main steady state absorption and emission features and their interpretation in terms of theoretical calculations. Then, we revise the main topographical features, including stationary points and interstate crossings, of their potential energy surfaces based on quantum mechanical calculations and we conclude, by combining the outcome of different spectroscopic techniques and molecular dynamics simulations, with the mechanism by which these nucleobase analogs populate their triplet excited states, which are at the origin of their photosensitizing properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serra Arslancan
- Departamento de Química, Módulo 13, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid 28049, Spain;
| | - Lara Martínez-Fernández
- Istituto Biostrutture e Bioimmagini-Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Via Mezzocannone 16, Napoli I-80134, Italy
- Correspondence: (L.M.-F.); (I.C.); Tel.: +34-91-497-8471 (I.C.)
| | - Inés Corral
- Departamento de Química, Módulo 13, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid 28049, Spain;
- Institute for Advanced Research in Chemical Sciences (IADCHEM), Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid 28049, Spain
- Correspondence: (L.M.-F.); (I.C.); Tel.: +34-91-497-8471 (I.C.)
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9
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Azathioprine with Allopurinol: Lower Deoxythioguanosine in DNA and Transcriptome Changes Indicate Mechanistic Differences to Azathioprine Alone. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2017; 23:946-955. [PMID: 28452864 PMCID: PMC5436732 DOI: 10.1097/mib.0000000000001131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Use of azathioprine (AZA) for inflammatory bowel disease is limited by side effects or poor efficacy. Combining low-dose azathioprine with allopurinol (LDAA) bypasses side effects, improves efficacy, and may be appropriate as first-line therapy. We test the hypothesis that standard-dose azathioprine (AZA) and LDAA treatments work by similar mechanisms, using incorporation of the metabolite deoxythioguanosine into patient DNA, white-blood cell counts, and transcriptome analysis as biological markers of drug effect. METHODS DNA was extracted from peripheral whole-blood from patients with IBD treated with AZA or LDAA, and analyzed for DNA-incorporated deoxythioguanosine. Measurement of red-blood cell thiopurine metabolites was part of usual clinical practice, and pre- and on-treatment (12 wk) blood samples were used for transcriptome analysis. RESULTS There were no differences in reduction of white-cell counts between the 2 treatment groups, but patients on LDAA had lower DNA-incorporated deoxythioguanosine than those on AZA; for both groups, incorporated deoxythioguanosine was lower in patients on thiopurines for 24 weeks or more (maintenance of remission) compared to patients treated for less than 24 weeks (achievement of remission). Patients on LDAA had higher levels of red-blood cell thioguanine nucleotides than those on AZA, but there was no correlation between these or their methylated metabolites, and incorporated deoxythioguanosine. Transcriptome analysis suggested down-regulation of immune responses consistent with effective immunosuppression in patients receiving LDAA, with evidence for different mechanisms of action between the 2 therapies. CONCLUSIONS LDAA is biologically effective despite lower deoxythioguanosine incorporation into DNA, and has different mechanisms of action compared to standard-dose azathioprine.
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Valerie NCK, Hagenkort A, Page BDG, Masuyer G, Rehling D, Carter M, Bevc L, Herr P, Homan E, Sheppard NG, Stenmark P, Jemth AS, Helleday T. NUDT15 Hydrolyzes 6-Thio-DeoxyGTP to Mediate the Anticancer Efficacy of 6-Thioguanine. Cancer Res 2016; 76:5501-11. [PMID: 27530327 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-16-0584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2016] [Accepted: 07/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Thiopurines are a standard treatment for childhood leukemia, but like all chemotherapeutics, their use is limited by inherent or acquired resistance in patients. Recently, the nucleoside diphosphate hydrolase NUDT15 has received attention on the basis of its ability to hydrolyze the thiopurine effector metabolites 6-thio-deoxyGTP (6-thio-dGTP) and 6-thio-GTP, thereby limiting the efficacy of thiopurines. In particular, increasing evidence suggests an association between the NUDT15 missense variant, R139C, and thiopurine sensitivity. In this study, we elucidated the role of NUDT15 and NUDT15 R139C in thiopurine metabolism. In vitro and cellular results argued that 6-thio-dGTP and 6-thio-GTP are favored substrates for NUDT15, a finding supported by a crystallographic determination of NUDT15 in complex with 6-thio-GMP. We found that NUDT15 R139C mutation did not affect enzymatic activity but instead negatively influenced protein stability, likely due to a loss of supportive intramolecular bonds that caused rapid proteasomal degradation in cells. Mechanistic investigations in cells indicated that NUDT15 ablation potentiated induction of the DNA damage checkpoint and cancer cell death by 6-thioguanine. Taken together, our results defined how NUDT15 limits thiopurine efficacy and how genetic ablation via the R139C missense mutation confers sensitivity to thiopurine treatment in patients. Cancer Res; 76(18); 5501-11. ©2016 AACR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas C K Valerie
- Science for Life Laboratory, Division of Translational Medicine and Chemical Biology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anna Hagenkort
- Science for Life Laboratory, Division of Translational Medicine and Chemical Biology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Brent D G Page
- Science for Life Laboratory, Division of Translational Medicine and Chemical Biology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Geoffrey Masuyer
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Daniel Rehling
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Megan Carter
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Luka Bevc
- Science for Life Laboratory, Division of Translational Medicine and Chemical Biology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Patrick Herr
- Science for Life Laboratory, Division of Translational Medicine and Chemical Biology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Evert Homan
- Science for Life Laboratory, Division of Translational Medicine and Chemical Biology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Nina G Sheppard
- Science for Life Laboratory, Division of Translational Medicine and Chemical Biology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Pål Stenmark
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Ann-Sofie Jemth
- Science for Life Laboratory, Division of Translational Medicine and Chemical Biology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Thomas Helleday
- Science for Life Laboratory, Division of Translational Medicine and Chemical Biology, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
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11
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Peters CP, Mjösberg JM, Bernink JH, Spits H. Innate lymphoid cells in inflammatory bowel diseases. Immunol Lett 2015; 172:124-31. [PMID: 26470815 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2015.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2015] [Revised: 09/28/2015] [Accepted: 10/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
It is generally believed that inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) are caused by an aberrant immune response to environmental triggers in genetically susceptible individuals. The exact contribution of the adaptive and innate immune system has not been elucidated. However, recent advances in treatments targeting key inflammatory mediators such as tumour necrosis factor highlight the crucial role of the innate immune system in IBD. Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) have recently been identified to play an important role in immune mediated inflammatory diseases. In this review we recapitulate the current knowledge on ILCs in IBD.
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Affiliation(s)
- C P Peters
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - J M Mjösberg
- Center for Infectious Medicine, Department of Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge Karolinska Institutet, CIM, F59, S-14186 Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - J H Bernink
- Department of Celbiology and Histology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - H Spits
- Department of Celbiology and Histology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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12
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Martínez-Fernández L, Corral I, Granucci G, Persico M. Competing ultrafast intersystem crossing and internal conversion: a time resolved picture for the deactivation of 6-thioguanine. Chem Sci 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c3sc52856a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
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13
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Dongarrà ML, Belvedere A, Ferlazzo G, Fries W. Clinical drug response to thiopurines is associated to a lower interferon-γ production by IBD patient's T lymphocytes. J Crohns Colitis 2013; 7:e497-8. [PMID: 23685139 DOI: 10.1016/j.crohns.2013.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2013] [Accepted: 04/17/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Luisa Dongarrà
- Laboratory of Immunology and Biotherapy, Dept. of Human Pathology, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
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14
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Cossu A, Biancone L, Ascolani M, Pallone F, Boirivant M. "In vitro" azathioprine-induced changes in peripheral T cell apoptosis and IFN-γ production associate with drug response in patients with Crohn's Disease. J Crohns Colitis 2013; 7:441-50. [PMID: 22840925 DOI: 10.1016/j.crohns.2012.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2012] [Revised: 06/11/2012] [Accepted: 06/26/2012] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIM The use of the highly effective thiopurines as early therapeutic option in Crohn's Disease (CD) may be discouraged by the long time interval required to obtain clinical efficacy as also by their potential side effects. The development of non-invasive markers of responsiveness to thiopurines represents a major attempt in the clinical management of CD patients. Azathioprine is able to induce apoptosis of T cells. We studied the effect of thiopurines on "in vitro" T cell apoptosis, IFN-γ and IL-10 production in a group of CD patients with known response to a previous treatment with AZA. METHODS Heparinized blood samples were drawn from 25 CD patients showing or not a previous responsiveness to a conventional azathioprine treatment (n=17 and n=8, respectively). CD4+ T cells were stimulated "in vitro" with aCD3/28 mAbs in the presence or absence of azathioprine, 6-mercaptopurine or 6-thioguanine. Apoptosis was assessed using Annexin V staining, and IFN-γ and IL-10 production in cell culture supernatants was evaluated by ELISA. RESULTS Apoptosis stimulation index (% of apoptotic cells in the presence of thiopurine/% of apoptotic cells in the absence of thiopurine) and IFN-γ stimulation index (IFN-γ production in the presence of thiopurine/IFN-γ production in the absence of thiopurine) were, respectively, significantly lower and higher in non-responder when compared to responder patients. No variation was observed in IL-10 production. CONCLUSIONS Evaluation of apoptosis and IFN-γ stimulation index of peripheral CD4+ T cell may be useful for a proper selection of CD patients candidate to thiopurine treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Cossu
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Policlinico Umberto I, University La Sapienza, Roma, Italy.
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15
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Saha S, Wald A. Safety and efficacy of immunomodulators and biologics during pregnancy and lactation for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2012; 11:947-57. [PMID: 22954378 DOI: 10.1517/14740338.2012.720970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) are chronic, idiopathic, inflammatory conditions of the gastrointestinal tract, that peak in incidence during the reproductive years. Therefore, the safety of IBD medications during pregnancy and lactation is of significant interest to patients. Unfortunately, the current pregnancy labeling used by the United States Food and Drug Association (FDA) is often misinterpreted and may mislead healthcare providers and their patients to believe that risk increases from Category A to B to C to D to X, which in fact, is not the case. In addition, the FDA categories do not always distinguish between risks based on human versus animal data, or between differences in frequency, severity, and type of fetal developmental toxicities. AREAS COVERED This article provides an in-depth review of the available safety data during pregnancy and lactation for the more potent immunosuppressants used to treat IBD: the immunomodulators and biologics. It also includes the authors' expert opinions on the use of these medications during these critical periods. EXPERT OPINION The benefit-to-risk ratio for most immunomodulators and biologics used in the treatment of IBD favors medication continuation during pregnancy. Certain immunomodulators, however, can cause extreme fetal harm and should be used with caution. While human safety data regarding teratogenesis and some data on pregnancy outcomes exist for most IBD medications, long-term follow-up studies of children and young adults exposed to these drugs in utero are lacking. These studies are needed to determine if these drugs are of sufficiently low risk to be considered safe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumona Saha
- University of Wisconsin, School of Medicine and Public Health, 1685 Highland Avenue, Madison, 53705, USA
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Attard NR, Karran P. UVA photosensitization of thiopurines and skin cancer in organ transplant recipients. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2012; 11:62-8. [PMID: 21860872 DOI: 10.1039/c1pp05194f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2011] [Accepted: 07/21/2011] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The thiopurines azathioprine, 6-mercaptopurine and 6-thioguanine (6-TG) are important medications for cancer and inflammatory disorders. They are also widely prescribed as immunosuppressants in organ transplant patients. Their metabolism results in the incorporation of 6-TG into patients' DNA, and this increases skin sensitivity to incident UVA. Unlike the canonical DNA bases, which do not absorb UVA to a significant degree, DNA 6-TG is a strong UVA chromophore. It acts as a Type II UVA photosensitizer, and the combination of 6-TG and UVA treatment induces a synergistic toxicity in cultured human cells. Here, we review some of the damage that this interaction causes. Photochemical activation of DNA 6-TG triggers DNA and protein oxidation; it induces DNA breakage, DNA crosslinking, oxidation of DNA bases and the covalent attachment of proteins to DNA. Many of these photochemical DNA lesions are difficult for cells to deal with, and we review the evidence linking thiopurine immunosuppression with genome instability and the high incidence of skin cancer in organ transplant recipients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie R Attard
- Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Clare Hall Laboratories, South Mimms, Hertfordshire EN6 3LD, UK
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Gueranger Q, Kia A, Frith D, Karran P. Crosslinking of DNA repair and replication proteins to DNA in cells treated with 6-thioguanine and UVA. Nucleic Acids Res 2011; 39:5057-66. [PMID: 21398635 PMCID: PMC3130278 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkr112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2011] [Revised: 02/11/2011] [Accepted: 02/14/2011] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The DNA of patients taking immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory thiopurines contains 6-thioguanine (6-TG) and their skin is hypersensitive to ultraviolet A (UVA) radiation. DNA 6-TG absorbs UVA and generates reactive oxygen species that damage DNA and proteins. Here, we show that the DNA damage includes covalent DNA-protein crosslinks. An oligonucleotide containing a single 6-TG is photochemically crosslinked to cysteine-containing oligopeptides by low doses of UVA. Crosslinking is significantly more efficient if guanine sulphonate (G(SO3))--an oxidized 6-TG and a previously identified UVA photoproduct--replaces 6-TG, suggesting that G(SO3) is an important reaction intermediate. Crosslinking occurs via oligopeptide sulphydryl and free amino groups. The oligonucleotide-oligopeptide adducts are heat stable but are partially reversed by reducing treatments. UVA irradiation of human cells containing DNA 6-TG induces extensive heat- and reducing agent-resistant covalent DNA-protein crosslinks and diminishes the recovery of some DNA repair and replication proteins from nuclear extracts. DNA-protein crosslinked material has an altered buoyant density and can be purified by banding in cesium chloride (CsCl) gradients. PCNA, the MSH2 mismatch repair protein and the XPA nucleotide excision repair (NER) factor are among the proteins detectable in the DNA-crosslinked material. These findings suggest that the 6-TG/UVA combination might compromise DNA repair by sequestering essential proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Peter Karran
- Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Clare Hall Laboratories, South Mimms, EN6 3LD, UK
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Ren X, Xu YZ, Karran P. Photo-oxidation of 6-thioguanine by UVA: the formation of addition products with low molecular weight thiol compounds. Photochem Photobiol 2010; 86:1038-45. [PMID: 20573042 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.2010.00771.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The thiopurine, 6-thioguanine (6-TG) is present in the DNA of patients treated with the immunosuppressant and anticancer drugs azathioprine or mercaptopurine. The skin of these patients is selectively sensitive to UVA radiation-which comprises >90% of the UV light in incident sunlight-and they suffer high rates of skin cancer. UVA irradiation of DNA 6-TG produces DNA lesions that may contribute to the development of cancer. Antioxidants can protect 6-TG against UVA but 6-TG oxidation products may undergo further reactions. We characterize some of these reactions and show that addition products are formed between UVA-irradiated 6-TG and N-acetylcysteine and other low molecular weight thiol compounds including β-mercaptoethanol, cysteine and the cysteine-containing tripeptide glutathione (GSH). GSH is also adducted to 6-TG-containing oligodeoxynucleotides in an oxygen- and UVA-dependent nucleophilic displacement reaction that involves an intermediate oxidized 6-TG, guanine sulfonate (G(SO3) ). These photochemical reactions of 6-TG, particularly the formation of a covalent oligodeoxynucleotide-GSH complex, suggest that crosslinking of proteins or low molecular weight thiol compounds to DNA may be a previously unrecognized hazard in sunlight-exposed cells of thiopurine-treated patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolin Ren
- Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Clare Hall Laboratories, South Mimms, Herts, UK
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Reinisch W, de Villiers W, Bene L, Simon L, Rácz I, Katz S, Altorjay I, Feagan B, Riff D, Bernstein CN, Hommes D, Rutgeerts P, Cortot A, Gaspari M, Cheng M, Pearce T, Sands BE. Fontolizumab in moderate to severe Crohn's disease: a phase 2, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multiple-dose study. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2010; 16:233-42. [PMID: 19637334 DOI: 10.1002/ibd.21038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The safety and efficacy of fontolizumab, a humanized anti-interferon gamma antibody, was investigated in patients with Crohn's disease (CD). Elevated gut mucosal levels of interferon gamma, a key cytokine involved in the inflammatory process of CD, are associated with disease symptoms. METHODS A total of 201 patients with Crohn's Disease Activity Index (CDAI) scores between 250 and 450 were randomized to receive an initial intravenous dose of 1.0 or 4.0 mg/kg fontolizumab or placebo, followed by up to 3 subcutaneous doses of 0.1 or 1.0 mg/kg fontolizumab or placebo every 4 weeks. Clinical response at day 29, the primary efficacy endpoint, was defined as a decrease in the CDAI of at least 100 points from baseline levels. RESULTS Of 201 patients, 135 (67%) completed the study. Day 29 response rates were similar in all treatment groups (31%-38%). At subsequent timepoints a significantly greater proportion of patients in the 1.0 mg/kg intravenous / 1.0 mg/kg subcutaneous fontolizumab group had clinical response and significantly greater improvement in the CDAI score compared with patients who received placebo. All fontolizumab groups had significant improvement in C-reactive protein levels. The overall frequency of adverse events was similar in all groups (58%-75%); most events were related to exacerbation of CD. There was a low frequency (5.2%) of neutralizing antibodies to fontolizumab. CONCLUSIONS Although a strong clinical response to fontolizumab was not observed, significant decreases in C-reactive protein levels suggest a biological effect. Fontolizumab was well tolerated, and further studies to assess its efficacy are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter Reinisch
- Clinic of Internal Medicine III, Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
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Wang H, Wang Y. 6-Thioguanine perturbs cytosine methylation at the CpG dinucleotide site by DNA methyltransferases in vitro and acts as a DNA demethylating agent in vivo. Biochemistry 2009; 48:2290-9. [PMID: 19236003 DOI: 10.1021/bi801467z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Thiopurines are among the most successful chemotherapeutic agents for treating a number of human diseases including acute lymphoblastic leukemia. The mechanisms through which the thiopurines elicit their cytotoxic effects remain unclear. We postulate that the incorporation of 6-thioguanine into the CpG site may perturb the methyltransferase-mediated cytosine methylation at this site, thereby interfering with the epigenetic pathways of gene regulation. To gain biochemical evidence for this hypothesis, we assessed, by using a restriction enzyme digestion coupled with LC-MS/MS method, the impact of 6-thioguanine on cytosine methylation mediated by two DNA methyltransferases, human DNMT1 and bacterial HpaII. Our results revealed that the incorporation of 6-thioguanine into the CpG site could affect the methylation of the cytosine residue by both methyltransferases and the effect on cytosine methylation is dependent on the position of 6-thioguanine with respect to the cytosine to be methylated. The presence of 6-thioguanine at the methylated CpG site enhanced the DNMT1-mediated methylation of the opposing cytosine in the complementary strand, whereas the presence of 6-thioguanine at the unmethylated CpG site abolished almost completely the methylation of its 5' adjacent cytosine by both DNMT1 and HpaII. We further demonstrated that the treatment of Jurkat T cells, which were derived from acute lymphoblastic leukemia, with 6-thioguanine could result in an appreciable drop in the level of global cytosine methylation. These results showed that 6-thioguanine, after being incorporated into DNA, may perturb the epigenetic pathway of gene regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongxia Wang
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Riverside, California 92521-0403, USA
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21
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Nguyen T, Vacek PM, O'Neill P, Colletti RB, Finette BA. Mutagenicity and potential carcinogenicity of thiopurine treatment in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Cancer Res 2009; 69:7004-12. [PMID: 19706768 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-09-0451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The thiopurines azathioprine and 6-mercaptopurine (6-MP) are effective immune modulators and cytotoxic agents extensively used in the treatment of autoimmune diseases, graft rejection, and cancer. There is compelling epidemiologic evidence that thiopurine treatment increases the risk for a variety of tumors by mechanisms that are unclear. We investigated the in vivo mutagenicity of long-term thiopurine treatment by determining the frequency and spectra of somatic mutation events at the hypoxanthine phosphoribosyltransferase (HPRT) locus in peripheral T lymphocytes as well as the prevalence of mutant clonal proliferation in a cross-sectional analysis of data from 119 children and adults with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). ANOVA and regression were performed to assess relationships among the frequency and spectra of HPRT mutations with disease, duration of illness, duration of treatment, and total therapeutic dose of azathioprine and 6-MP. We observed a significant increase in the frequency of somatic mutations in 56 subjects treated with thiopurines for IBD compared with 63 subjects not treated with thiopurines. This increase was related to both total dose (P < 0.001) and duration of treatment (P < 0.001). Comparative mutation spectra analysis of 1,020 mutant isolates revealed a significant increase in the proportion of all transitions (P < 0.001), particularly G:C to A:T transitions (P < 0.001). Combined analyses of two signatures for mutant clonality, HPRT mutation, and T-cell receptor beta CDR3 region unique gene sequence also showed a significant thiopurine-dependent increase in mutant cell clonal proliferation (P < 0.001). These findings provide in vivo evidence for mutation induction as a potential carcinogenic mechanism associated with chronic thiopurine intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Truc Nguyen
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont 05445-0068, USA
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22
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Seksik P, Cosnes J, Sokol H, Nion-Larmurier I, Gendre JP, Beaugerie L. Incidence of benign upper respiratory tract infections, HSV and HPV cutaneous infections in inflammatory bowel disease patients treated with azathioprine. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2009; 29:1106-13. [PMID: 19222411 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2036.2009.03973.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There are few data on the incidence of benign infections (upper respiratory tract infections, herpes lesions and viral warts) during exposure to azathioprine. AIMS To determine the incidence of benign infections in IBD out-patients receiving azathioprine (AZA+) and to look at the influence of leucocyte counts in the onset of these events. METHODS A total of 230 patients were included in a prospective cohort and observed during 207 patient-years. Episodes of benign infections were collected and incidences of benign infections were compared between the AZA+ group and patients without AZA (AZA-). RESULTS The incidence of upper respiratory tract infections in the cohort was 2.1 +/- 2.2 per observation-year. There was no difference between the AZA+ (n = 169) and AZA- (n = 61) groups (2.2 +/- 2.3 vs. 2.1 +/- 2.1, P = 0.77). The incidence of herpes flares was significantly increased in the AZA+ group compared to the AZA- group (1.0 +/- 2.6 vs. 0.2 +/- 0.8 per year, P = 0.04). Similarly, there were significantly more patients with appearance or worsening viral warts in the AZA+ group (17.2% (AZA+) vs. 3.3% (AZA-), P = 0.004). CONCLUSION This study suggests that the incidence of herpes flares and the appearance or worsening of viral warts are increased in IBD patients receiving AZA.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Seksik
- Département de Gastroentérologie & Nutrition, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, Université Pierre et Marie Curie Paris VI, AP-HP, Paris, France.
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Crohn disease of the neovagina and augmented bladder in a child born with cloacal exstrophy. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2009; 48:106-9. [PMID: 19172133 DOI: 10.1097/mpg.0b013e31815c9341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
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De Paula ML, Braga FG, Coimbra ES, Carmo AML, Teixeira HC, Da Silva AD, Souza MA, Ferreira AP. Modulatory effects of 6-carboxymethylthiopurine on activated murine macrophages. Chem Biol Drug Des 2008; 71:563-7. [PMID: 18466273 DOI: 10.1111/j.1747-0285.2008.00665.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The immunological activity of macrophages against pathogens in hosts includes the phagocytosis and the production of nitric oxide. We report herein the investigation of the effect of 6-carboxymethylthiopurine on nitric oxide production by murine macrophages as well as its effect on the cell viability and proliferation after stimulus with Mycobacterium bovis bacille Calmette-Guérin, interferon-gamma or a combination of both. J774A.1 macrophages stimulated or not by bacille Calmette-Guérin (20 microg/mL), interferon-gamma or both, were cultured in the presence of 6-carboxymethylthiopurine (125, 250 and 500 microm). Nitric oxide production was measured by the Griess method and cell viability/proliferation by the diphenyltetrazolium assay [3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide]. We observed an increase of J774A.1 cell proliferation after stimulus with bacille Calmette-Guérin at 125, 250 and 500 microm (69.1, 124.0 and 89.7%, respectively) and with interferon-gamma at 125 and 250 microm (64.8% and 61.7%, respectively) (p < 0.05). In all cultures treated with 6-carboxymethylthiopurine, interferon-gamma-activated nitric oxide production by J774A.1 cells decreased as well as when subjected to interferon-gamma plus bacille Calmette-Guérin stimuli at 500 microm (p < 0.05). Altogether these data point to an anti-inflammatory effect of 6-carboxymethylthiopurine on stimulated macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcio L De Paula
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Microbiologia e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Juiz de Fora, MG, Brazil
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Molyneux G, Gibson FM, Chen CM, Marway HK, McKeag S, Mifsud CVJ, Pilling AM, Whayman MJ, Turton JA. The haemotoxicity of azathioprine in repeat dose studies in the female CD-1 mouse. Int J Exp Pathol 2008; 89:138-58. [PMID: 18336531 PMCID: PMC2525763 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2613.2008.00575.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2007] [Accepted: 12/02/2007] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Azathioprine (AZA) is a cytotoxic immunosuppressive drug used in the prevention of rejection in organ transplants and the treatment of auto-immune diseases. However, AZA is haemotoxic causing significant bone marrow depression. The present studies were to characterize the haemotoxicity of AZA in the female CD-1 mouse. In Experiment 1, a dose-ranging study, with AZA gavaged daily for 10 days, clinical evidence of toxicity was evident at 125 mg/kg and above. Experiment 2 was a dose-response study with AZA gavaged daily for 10 days at 40-120 mg/kg. At day 1 after the final dose, AZA induced a dose-related pancytopaenia, reduced femoral marrow cellularity, increases in serum levels of the cytokine fms-like tyrosine kinase 3 ligand, reduction in granulocyte-monocyte colony-forming units and erythroid colonies, and increased bone marrow apoptosis. Histology demonstrated hepatocyte hypertrophy, thymic atrophy, reduced splenic extramedullary haemopoiesis, and reduced cellularity of sternal bone marrow. In Experiment 3, AZA was dosed for 10 days at 100 mg/kg with autopsies at 1, 3, 9, 22, 29, 43 and 57 days postdosing. At 1, 3 and 9 days, haematological parameters reflected changes in Experiment 2. At 22/29 days, many blood parameters were returning towards normal; at 43/57 days, most parameters compared with controls. However, there was some evidence of a persistent (i.e. residual/late-stage) mild reduction in RBC and erythroid progenitor cell counts at day 43/57. We conclude that the CD-1 mouse provides an acceptable model for the haemotoxicity of AZA in man.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gemma Molyneux
- Division of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Section for Cellular and Molecular Pathology, St. George's, University of London, London,UK
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Karran P, Attard N. Thiopurines in current medical practice: molecular mechanisms and contributions to therapy-related cancer. Nat Rev Cancer 2008; 8:24-36. [PMID: 18097462 DOI: 10.1038/nrc2292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 339] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Thiopurines have diverse clinical applications and their long-term use as anti-rejection drugs in transplant patients has been associated with a significantly increased risk of various types of cancer. Although they are slowly being replaced by a new generation of non-thiopurine immunosuppressants, it is anticipated that their use in the management of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases will continue to increase. Therapy-related cancer will remain a potential consequence of prolonged treatment for these generally non-life-threatening conditions. Understanding how thiopurines contribute to the development of cancer will facilitate clinical decisions about the potential risks to patients of long-term treatment for chronic inflammatory disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Karran
- Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Clare Hall Laboratories, South Mimms, Hertfordshire, EN6 3LD, UK.
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de Boer NKH, van Bodegraven AA, Jharap B, de Graaf P, Mulder CJJ. Drug Insight: pharmacology and toxicity of thiopurine therapy in patients with IBD. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 4:686-94. [DOI: 10.1038/ncpgasthep1000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2007] [Accepted: 09/25/2007] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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Poppe D, Tiede I, Fritz G, Becker C, Bartsch B, Wirtz S, Strand D, Tanaka S, Galle PR, Bustelo XR, Neurath MF. Azathioprine suppresses ezrin-radixin-moesin-dependent T cell-APC conjugation through inhibition of Vav guanosine exchange activity on Rac proteins. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2006; 176:640-51. [PMID: 16365460 PMCID: PMC1965586 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.176.1.640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
We have shown recently that the azathioprine metabolite 6-Thio-GTP causes immunosuppression by blockade of GTPase activation in T lymphocytes. In the present study, we describe a new molecular mechanism by which 6-Thio-GTP blocks GTPase activation. Although 6-Thio-GTP could bind to various small GTPases, it specifically blocked activation of Rac1 and Rac2 but not of closely related Rho family members such as Cdc42 and RhoA in primary T cells upon stimulation with alphaCD28 or fibronectin. Binding of 6-Thio-GTP to Rac1 did not suppress Rac effector coupling directly but blocked Vav1 exchange activity upon 6-Thio-GTP hydrolysis, suggesting that 6-Thio-GTP loading leads to accumulation of 6-Thio-GDP-loaded, inactive Rac proteins over time by inhibiting Vav activity. In the absence of apoptosis, blockade of Vav-mediated Rac1 activation led to a blockade of ezrin-radixin-moesin dephosphorylation in primary T cells and suppression of T cell-APC conjugation. Azathioprine-generated 6-Thio-GTP thus prevents the development of an effective immune response via blockade of Vav activity on Rac proteins. These findings provide novel insights into the immunosuppressive effects of azathioprine and suggest that antagonists of the Vav-Rac signaling pathway may be useful for suppression of T cell-dependent pathogenic immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Poppe
- Laboratory of Immunology, I. Department of Medicine, University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Imke Tiede
- Laboratory of Immunology, I. Department of Medicine, University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Gerhard Fritz
- Department of Toxicology, University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Christoph Becker
- Laboratory of Immunology, I. Department of Medicine, University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Brigitte Bartsch
- Laboratory of Immunology, I. Department of Medicine, University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Stefan Wirtz
- Laboratory of Immunology, I. Department of Medicine, University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Dennis Strand
- Laboratory of Immunology, I. Department of Medicine, University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Shinya Tanaka
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Pathology, Hokkaido University Graduate School of Medicine, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Peter R. Galle
- Laboratory of Immunology, I. Department of Medicine, University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Xosé R. Bustelo
- Centro de Investigación del Cáncer, University of Salamanca-Spanish Council for Scientific Research, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Markus F. Neurath
- Laboratory of Immunology, I. Department of Medicine, University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
- Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. Markus F. Neurath, Laboratory of Immunology, I. Department of Medicine, University of Mainz, Langenbeckstrasse 1, 55101 Mainz, Germany. E-mail address:
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O'Donovan P, Perrett CM, Zhang X, Montaner B, Xu YZ, Harwood CA, McGregor JM, Walker SL, Hanaoka F, Karran P. Azathioprine and UVA light generate mutagenic oxidative DNA damage. Science 2005; 309:1871-4. [PMID: 16166520 PMCID: PMC2426755 DOI: 10.1126/science.1114233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 469] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Oxidative stress and mutagenic DNA lesions formed by reactive oxygen species (ROS) are linked to human malignancy. Clinical treatments inducing chronic oxidative stress may therefore carry a risk of therapy-related cancer. We suggest that immunosuppression by azathioprine (Aza) may be one such treatment. Aza causes the accumulation of 6-thioguanine (6-TG) in patients' DNA. Here we demonstrate that biologically relevant doses of ultraviolet A (UVA) generate ROS in cultured cells with 6-TG-substituted DNA and that 6-TG and UVA are synergistically mutagenic. A replication-blocking DNA 6-TG photoproduct, guanine sulfonate, was bypassed by error-prone, Y-family DNA polymerases in vitro. A preliminary analysis revealed that in five of five cases, Aza treatment was associated with a selective UVA photosensitivity. These findings may partly explain the prevalence of skin cancer in long-term survivors of organ transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter O'Donovan
- Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Clare Hall Laboratories, South Mimms, Hertfordshire EN6 3LD, UK
| | - Conal M. Perrett
- Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Clare Hall Laboratories, South Mimms, Hertfordshire EN6 3LD, UK
- Centre for Cutaneous Research, Institute of Cell and Molecular Science, Barts and The London Queen Mary's School of Medicine and Dentistry, 4, Newark Street, London, E1 2AT, UK
| | - Xiaohong Zhang
- Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Clare Hall Laboratories, South Mimms, Hertfordshire EN6 3LD, UK
- Department of Chemistry, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA, UK
| | - Beatriz Montaner
- Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Clare Hall Laboratories, South Mimms, Hertfordshire EN6 3LD, UK
| | - Yao-Zhong Xu
- Department of Chemistry, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA, UK
| | - Catherine A. Harwood
- Centre for Cutaneous Research, Institute of Cell and Molecular Science, Barts and The London Queen Mary's School of Medicine and Dentistry, 4, Newark Street, London, E1 2AT, UK
| | - Jane M. McGregor
- Centre for Cutaneous Research, Institute of Cell and Molecular Science, Barts and The London Queen Mary's School of Medicine and Dentistry, 4, Newark Street, London, E1 2AT, UK
| | - Susan L. Walker
- Department of Photobiology, Guy's, King's and St Thomas' School of Medicine, St. John's Institute of Dermatology, King's College, London SE1 7EH, UK
| | - Fumio Hanaoka
- RIKEN Discovery Research Institute, Wako-shi, Saitama 351-0198 Japan
| | - Peter Karran
- Cancer Research UK London Research Institute, Clare Hall Laboratories, South Mimms, Hertfordshire EN6 3LD, UK
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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