The Health Benefit of Seafood

Evaluation of Chemical Elements, Lipid Profiles, Nutritional Indices and Health Risk Assessment of European Eel (Anguilla anguilla L.)

The concentrations of ten elements (K, Na, Ca, Mg, Zn, Fe, Hg, Cu, Mn, and Cd) and fatty acids were analyzed in muscles of the European eel (Anguilla anguilla Linnaeus, 1758). The eels were caught in freshwater lakes connected with the Sawica River (north-eastern Poland). On this basis, it was determined whether the consumption of the fish is beneficial and safe for the health of the consumer. The results showed that the metal concentrations followed this order: K > Na > Ca > Mg > Zn > Fe > Hg > Cu > Mn > Cd. The fatty acids gave rise to the following sequence: MUFAs > SFAs > n-3 PUFAs > n-6 PUFAs. The target hazard quotient (THQ) value was below 1.0. The hazard quotient for the benefit-risk ratio HQ_EFA (0.39) also was below one, indicating that the intake of the recommended dose of EPA + DHA (250 mg/day) and the intake of mercury (0.415 mg/kg) for a person weighing 70 kg does not pose an obvious risk for human health. The lipid quality indices were OFA: 24.69, DFA: 74.36, AI: 0.55, and TI: 0.41. Based on the above statements, the consumption of eel meat is safe from a health point of view. However, the levels of toxic metals in the muscles of eels and their environment should continue to be monitored, as eels occupy a high position in the food chain.

Risk and benefit assessment of seafood consumption harvested from the Pertuis Charentais region of France

Seafood is well recognized as a major source of Long Chain n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (LC n-3 PUFA, especially ecosapentaenoic acid, i.e. EPA and docosaheaxaenoic acid, i.e. DHA) and essential trace elements (As, Cu, Fe, Mn, Se, and Zn). It is also a source of non-essential trace elements (Ag, Cd, Hg, Pb) that can be deleterious for health even at low concentrations. Edible parts of sixteen species (fish, cephalopods, crustaceans and bivalves) of great importance in the Pertuis Charentais region, one of the main shellfish farming and fishing areas along the french coastline, were sampled in winter and analyzed to determine their fatty acid (FA) composition and trace element concentrations. Based on these analyses, a suite of indices was calculated to estimate risk and benefit of seafood consumption: the n-6/n-3 ratio, the atherogenic index, the thrombogenic index, the EPA + DHA daily recommended portion, as well as the maximum safe consumption. The results showed that fish contributed the most to LC n-3 PUFA supply, while bivalves and crustaceans were more beneficial in essential trace elements. Whatever the species, the concentrations of non-essential elements were not limiting for seafood consumption, as important amounts of the analyzed species can be eaten daily or weekly before becoming hazardous to consumers. Yet, concentrations of Hg in dogfish and seabass can become a concern for frequent seafood consumers (>three meals a week), confirming that varying seafood items is a key point for consumers to optimize the benefits of diverse seafood resources. Considering FA composition, whiting and pilchard are the most beneficial fish species for human diet, while surmullet was the least beneficial one. However, using an index integrating the relative risk due to Hg content, the surmullet appears as one of the most beneficial. This study provides a temporal shot of the quality of marine resources consumed in winter period in the studied area and highlights the complexity of a quantitative risk and benefit assessment with respect to the biochemical attributes of selected seafood.

Fatty Acids and Nutraceutical Properties of Lipids in Fallow Deer (Dama dama) Meat Produced in Organic and Conventional Farming Systems

The aim of the study was to assess the fatty acid profile and nutraceutical properties of lipids contained in fallow deer (Dama dama) meat produced in organic and conventional farming systems. Longissimus lumborum (LL) and semimembranosus (SM) muscles from 24 fallow deer carcasses were selected for the study. The fallow deer meat from the organic farming system was characterized by significantly lower intramuscular fat content. The fatty acid profile in the organic meat was characterized by a particularly high proportion (p < 0.0001) of conjugated linoleic acid-CLA (LL-2.29%, SM-2.14%), alpha-linolenic acid-ALA (LL-4.32%, SM-3.87%), and docosahexaenoic acid-DHA (LL-2.83%, SM-2.60%). The organic system had a beneficial effect (p < 0.0001) on the amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), including n-3 PUFAs, which resulted in a more favorable n-6 PUFA (polyunsaturated fatty acid)/n-3 PUFA ratio. The significantly higher nutritional quality of organic meat lipids was confirmed by such nutraceutical indicators as the thrombogenic index (TI), ∆9-desaturase C16, elongase, and docosahexaenoic acid+eicosapentaenoic acid (DHA+EPA) in the LL and SM and cholesterol index (CI), and the cholesterol-saturated fat index (CSI) indices in the SM. LL was characterized by higher overall quality.

Microalgae as Sustainable Bio-Factories of Healthy Lipids: Evaluating Fatty Acid Content and Antioxidant Activity

The demand for sustainable and environmentally friendly food sources and food ingredients is increasing, and microalgae are promoted as a sustainable source of essential and bioactive lipids, with high levels of omega-3 fatty acids (ω-3 FA), comparable to those of fish. However, most FA screening studies on algae are scattered or use different methodologies, preventing a true comparison of its content between microalgae. In this work, we used gas-chromatography mass-spectrometry (GC-MS) to characterize the FA profile of seven different commercial microalgae with biotechnological applications (Chlorella vulgaris, Chlorococcum amblystomatis, Scenedesmus obliquus, Tetraselmis chui, Phaeodactylum tricornutum, Spirulina sp., and Nannochloropsis oceanica). Screening for antioxidant activity was also performed to understand the relationship between FA profile and bioactivity. Microalgae exhibited specific FA profiles with a different composition, namely in the ω-3 FA profile, but with species of the same phylum showing similar tendencies. The different lipid extracts showed similar antioxidant activities, but with a low activity of the extracts of Nannochloropsis oceanica. Overall, this study provides a direct comparison of FA profiles between microalgae species, supporting the role of these species as alternative, sustainable, and healthy sources of essential lipids.

Polar lipidomic profile shows Chlorococcum amblystomatis as a promising source of value-added lipids

There is a growing trend to explore microalgae as an alternative resource for the food, feed, pharmaceutical, cosmetic and fuel industry. Moreover, the polar lipidome of microalgae is interesting because of the reports of bioactive polar lipids which could foster new applications for microalgae. In this work, we identified for the first time the Chlorococcum amblystomatis lipidome using hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography-high resolution electrospray ionization- tandem mass spectrometry (HILIC-HR-ESI-MS/MS). The Chlorococcum amblystomatis strain had a lipid content of 20.77% and the fatty acid profile, determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, has shown that this microalga contains high amounts of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). The lipidome identified included 245 molecular ions and 350 lipid species comprising 15 different classes of glycolipids (6), phospholipids (7) and betaine lipids (2). Of these, 157 lipid species and the main lipid species of each class were esterified with omega-3 PUFAs. The lipid extract has shown antioxidant activity and anti-inflammatory potential. Lipid extracts also had low values of atherogenic (0.54) and thrombogenic index (0.27). In conclusion, the lipid extracts of Chlorococcum amblystomatis have been found to be a source of lipids rich in omega-3 PUFAs for of great value for the food, feed, cosmetic, nutraceutical and pharmaceutical industries.

Comparison of muscle fatty acid composition and lipid stability in lambs stall-fed or pasture-fed alfalfa with or without sainfoin pellet supplementation

Currently, consumers are increasingly interested in obtaining high-quality and healthy lamb meat. Compared to grain-based diets, dietary forage legumes such as alfalfa and condensed tannin (CT)-rich sainfoin increase the levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) that are beneficial for health in lamb meat thanks to their high content in PUFA and/or their impact on ruminal biohydrogenation. However, they can therefore adversely affect its oxidative stability. Thus, the impact of dietary forage legumes on lamb longissimus thoracis (LT) muscle FA composition and their stability to peroxidation was studied in 36 Romane lambs grazing alfalfa (AF; n = 12) or alfalfa plus daily supplementation with CT-rich sainfoin pellets (AS; n = 12; 15 g DM/kg BW, 42 g CT/kg DM) or stall-fed concentrate and grass hay indoors (SI; n = 12). Lambs were slaughtered at a mean age of 162 ± 8.0 days after an average experimental period of 101 ± 8.1 days. Forage legumes-grazing lambs outperformed SI lambs in LT nutritional quality, with more conjugated linoleic acids and n-3 PUFAs, especially 18:3n-3, eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids (P < 0.001), and thus lower n-6 PUFA/n-3 PUFA and 18:2 n-6/18:3 n-3 ratios (P < 0.001). Peroxidizability index was higher (P < 0.001) in LT muscle of forage legumes-grazing lambs. Concurrently, two endogenous antioxidant enzyme activities, superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase, were, respectively, similar and lower (P < 0.001) for forage legumes-grazing compared with SI lambs. A lower vitamin E level in SI lambs compared with forage legumes-grazing lambs (1.0 v. 3.8 mg/g, P < 0.001) could explain that malondialdehyde content, a marker of lipid oxidation intensity, was 0.63 µg/g in SI after 8 days in aerobic packaging conditions, whereas it remaining steady at 0.16 µg/g in forage legumes-grazing lambs. Dietary forage alfalfa thus improved FA composition of lamb LT muscle and their stability to oxidation when compared to SI lambs. However, supplementation of alfalfa-grazing lambs with CT-rich sainfoin pellets did not affect the nutritional quality of LT muscle FAs.

Sex and seasonal variation in proximate composition and fatty acid profile of Scomber scombrus (L. 1758) fillets from the Middle East Coast of Tunisia

This study investigates the impact of season and sex variations on the total lipid contents and fatty acid composition of Scomber scombrus fillets from the Middle East Coast of Tunisia in order to dertermine the most favorable periods for consumption, and to see if the nutritional quality of the meat depends on the sex of the animal. The effect of fishing season induced significant changes in the lipid profile, and the highest values for total lipids were obtained in the spring for females with 13.2% and for males with 18.9%. The highest values for proteins were obtained in the summer for females with 22.0% and for males with 21.8%. Protein content variations were not significant (p > 0.05). The n-3/n-6 ratio showed a significant level, indicating a tendency toward n-3 fatty acid accumulation in mackerel fillets mainly represented by DHA, whose values were high during the study period for both sexes, except in autumun, which is the period of mackerel gonad maturation, when DHA decreased significantly (p < 0.05), reaching 23.2 and 34.0% for males and females, respectively. It was concluded that Scomber scombrus has high levels of proteins, lipids, and fatty acid contents mainly n-3 PUFA. DHA sex variations were not significant (p > 0.05). The Atherogenicity index (AI) and Thrombogenicity index (TI) were calculated. In our study the AI index was comprised between 0.3 and 0.6 for males and between 0.4 and 0.5 for females. The TI index values ranged from 0.6 to 0.8 for males, and was about 0.6 for females.

Comparative study of the chemical composition, fatty acid profile, and nutritional quality of Lophiosilurus alexandri (Siluriformes: Pseudopimelodidae), a Brazilian carnivorous freshwater fish, grown in lotic, lentic, and aquaculture environments

ABSTRACT Lophiosilurus alexandri is a carnivorous freshwater fish endemic of São Francisco basin and an endangered species. In this study, we analysed the chemical composition (moisture, protein, ash and lipid), fatty acid profile, and nutritional quality (atherogenic index, thrombogenecity index, ratio between hypocholesterolemic and hypercholesterolemic fatty acids and ω6/ω3 = ratio) of L. alexandri in lotic (river), lentic (hydroelectric dams) environments, under natural fed, and in laboratory controlled conditions fed with commercial diets. Cultured and lentic fish had significantly higher lipid levels (1.5 and 1.9- fold, respectively) than lotic fish. Lentic L. alexandri had significantly higher eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) levels (4×) than cultured or lotic L. alexandri. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels were the highest in lentic fish, followed by lotic fish. Lentic fish had greater proportion of fatty acid ω6/ω3 than lotic or cultured fish. The results of this study showed that L. alexandri is a lean fish (1-2% of total lipids) and that the environment has a great influence on the fatty acid profile. These results may be a reference for further studies, primarily as a source of information for conservation L. alexandri through restocking and the development of commercial projects of aquaculture.

Nutritional value of the Tunisian mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis with a special emphasis on lipid quality

This study reports, for the first time, data on nutritional quality parameters in Tunisian mussels, Mytilus galloprovincialis, with an especial emphasis on lipid compounds. Mussel condition index (CI), proximate composition and fatty acid profiles were investigated for a one year period in order to identify the best harvesting period. Analysis revealed that polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) were the dominant fatty acids with a prevalence of n-3 over n-6 forms. Pearson's correlation indicated a strong relationship between CI and PUFA compound and Principal Components Analysis suggested that, from winter to summer, the product maintained a condition sufficiently good for marketing. The best CI and lipid quantity/quality occurred during summer and this may be used as criteria for product labelling. The study also included a thorough literature review that allowed data comparison on mussels from various Mediterranean sites and allowed the mussels from the Bizerte lagoon (North of Tunisia) to be differentiated.

Influence of difenoconazole on lipid metabolism in marine medaka (Oryzias melastigma)

Difenoconazole (DFZ) is a triazole fungicide that inhibits the biosynthesis of sterols in cell membranes and is widely used in agriculture for effectively treating fungal infections. However, there are few studies available addressing the effects of DFZ on lipid metabolism in marine fishes. The present study was conducted to investigate the effects of DFZ on lipid metabolism in marine medaka (Oryzias melastigma). After exposure to 1, 10, 100 and 1000 ng/L DFZ for 180 days, an increase in condition factor (CF), total lipids and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) contents accompanied with a decrease in saturated fatty acids was observed in the muscle of DFZ-exposed fish. The expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ as well as retinoid X receptors in the muscle was up-regulated, which would be responsible for the lipid accumulation in the muscle. The elevation of Δ6-desaturase (FADS2) and Δ9-desaturase (SCD) mRNA levels in the muscle and liver might result in the increase of PUFA content. The increased CF index and total lipid amounts indicated that DFZ exposure could affect the health of fish. ∑SFA (sum of saturated fatty acids) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid; 22:6n-3) concentrations decreased, and the levels of ∑PUFA and ∑n-6PUFA increased in the muscle, which suggested that DFZ exposure could change lipid metabolism and profiles in fish.

Chemical properties of ω-3 fortified gels made of protein isolate recovered with isoelectric solubilisation/precipitation from whole fish

Protein isolate was recovered from whole gutted fish using isoelectric solubilisation/precipitation (ISP). The objective was to determine chemical properties of heat-set gels made of the ISP protein isolate fortified with ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs)-rich oils (flaxseed, fish, algae, krill, and blend). The extent of the PUFAs increase, ω-6/ω-3 FAs and unsaturated/saturated FAs ratios, and the indices of thrombogenicity and atherogenicity depended on specific ω-3 PUFAs-rich oil used to fortify protein isolate gels. Lipid oxidation in ω-3 PUFAs fortified gels was minimal, although greater (P<0.05) than control gels (without ω-3 PUFAs fortification). However, all gels were in the slightly rancid, but acceptable range. The commonly used thiobarbituric-acid-reactive-substances (TBARS) assay to determine lipid oxidation in seafood may be inaccurate for samples containing krill oil due to its red pigment, astaxanthin. Protein degradation (total-volatile-basic-nitrogen) was greater (P<0.05) in ω-3 PUFAs fortified gels than control gels. However, all gels were considerably below the acceptability threshold for protein degradation. The shear stress of ω-3 PUFAs fortified gels was generally greater than the control gels and the shear strain was generally unchanged. This study demonstrates that ω-3 PUFAs fortification of protein isolates recovered with ISP from fish processing by-products or whole fish has potential application in the development of functional foods.

Proximate and fatty acid composition of some commercially important fish species from the Sinop region of the Black Sea

The proximate and fatty acid compositions of the commercially important fish species (Engraulis encrasicolus, Alosa alosa, Belone belone, Scorpaena porcus, Pomatomus saltatrix, Mullus barbatus) from the Sinop region of the Black Sea were examined. The fat contents ranged from 1.26% (for scorpion fish) to 18.12% (for shad). The protein contents were min 14.54% (for red mullet) and maximum 20.26% (for belone). The fatty acid compositions of the fish ranged from 27.83 to 35.91% for saturated fatty acids, 19.50-33.80% for monounsaturated fatty acids and 15.25-40.02% for polyunsaturated fatty acids. Among the saturated fatty acids, palmitic acid (16:0) (17.75-22.20%) was the dominant fatty acid for all the fish species. As a second saturated fatty acid, myristic acid (14:0) was observed in four of the fish species and its content ranged from 4.72 to 7.31%. Whereas, for the other two fish species, the second saturated fatty acid was stearic acid (18:0) ranging between 4.54 and 10.64%. Among the monounsaturated fatty acids, those occurring in the highest proportions were oleic acid (18:1n-9c) (11.67-22.45%) and palmitoleic acid (16:1) (4.50-9.40%). Docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3) (5.41-28.52%), eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3) (4.68-11.06) and linoleic acid (18:2n-6) (1.38-3.49%) were dominant polyunsaturated fatty acids, respectively. All the species, in particular the belone, the anchovy and the shad had high levels of the n-3 series.

Effects of caponisation on lipid and fatty acid composition of intramuscular and abdominal fat of medium-growth broilers

1. Capons and intact male broilers were used to investigate the effects of caponisation on intramuscular fat and abdominal adipose tissue lipid content and fatty acid profile. 2. Capons had significantly higher total lipid content (P<0·05). 3. Neutral lipids were the major fractions in intramuscular and abdominal fat but their proportions differed significantly among groups and tissues (P<0·05). 4. The predominant saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids in all samples were C16:0, C16:1 ω-9, C18:0, C18:1 ω-9, C18:1 ω-7, C18:2 ω-6 and C20:4 ω-6. 5. Caponisation resulted in a significant ω-6/ω-3, PUFA and PUFA/SFA ratio reduction as well as a significant increase in atherogenic and thrombogenic indices increase in intramuscular fat (P<0·05) without affecting their appropriate value for a healthy diet.

LC-PUFA biosynthesis in rainbow trout is substrate limited: use of the whole body fatty acid balance method and different 18:3n-3/18:2n-6 ratios

Five experimental diets with constant total C(18) PUFA and varying 18:3n-3/18:2n-6 ratios were fed to rainbow trout over an entire production cycle. The whole-body fatty acid balance method demonstrated a clear trend of progressively reduced fatty acid bioconversion activity along the n-3 and n-6 pathways, up to the production of 20:5n-3 and 20:4n-6, respectively. This suggests that the pathway exhibits a "funnel like" progression of activity rather than the existence of a single rate limiting step. The production of 22:5n-3 and 22:6n-3 was more active than that of 20:5n-3. However, despite this trend in reduced apparent in vivo net enzyme activity, the efficiency of the various bioconversion steps (measured as % of bioconverted substrate) confirmed an opposing trend. A 3.2-fold higher Δ-6 desaturase affinity towards 18:3n-3 over 18:2n-6 and an 8-fold greater Δ-5 desaturase affinity towards 20:4n-3 over 20:3n-6 were recorded. The main results of the study were that (1) rainbow trout are quite efficient at bioconverting 18:3n-3 to 22:6n-3, and (2) the LC-PUFA biosynthetic pathway is substrate limited. Fillet n-3 LC-PUFA concentrations increased with the increasing dietary supply of 18:3n-3. Despite an almost identical dietary supply of n-3 LC-PUFA, originating from the fish meal fraction of the diets, the fillets of trout fed the diet richest in 18:3n-3 were 2-fold higher in n-3 LC-PUFA than fish fed low 18:3n-3 diets. Nevertheless, fillets of trout fed a fish oil control diet contained more than double the amount of n-3 LC-PUFA compared to fish fed the diets richest in 18:3n-3.

Effects of dietary α-linolenic acid (18:3n-3)/linoleic acid (18:2n-6) ratio on fatty acid metabolism in Murray cod (Maccullochella peelii peelii)

Global shortages in fish oil are forcing the aquaculture feed industry to use alternative oil sources, the use of which negatively affects the final fatty acid makeup of cultured fish. Thus, the modulation of fatty acid metabolism in cultured fish is the core of an intensive global research effort. The present study aimed to evaluate the effects of various dietary α-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3n-3)/linoleic acid (LA, 18:2n-6) ratios in cultured fish. A feeding trial was implemented on the freshwater finfish Murray cod, in which fish were fed either a fish oil-based control diet or one of five fish oil-deprived experimental diets formulated to contain an ALA/LA ratio ranging from 0.3 to 2.9, but with a constant total C₁₈ PUFA (ALA+LA) content. The whole-body fatty acid balance method was used to evaluate fish in vivo fatty acid metabolism. The results indicate that dietary ALA was more actively β-oxidized and bioconverted, whereas LA appears to be more efficiently deposited. LA was β-oxidized at a constant level (~36% of net intake) independent of dietary availability, whereas ALA was oxidized proportionally to dietary supply. The in vivo apparent Δ-6 desaturase activity on n-3 and n-6 PUFA exhibited an increasing and decreasing trend, respectively, in conjunction with the increasing dietary ALA/LA ratio, clearly indicating that this enzymatic activity is substrate dependent. However, the maximum Δ-6 desaturase activity acting on ALA peaked at the substrate level of 3.2186 (μmol g fish⁻¹ day⁻¹), suggesting that additional inclusion of ALA is not only wasteful but counterproductive in terms of n-3 LC-PUFA production. Despite a constant total supply of ALA+LA, the recorded total in vivo apparent Δ-6 desaturase activity on both substrates (ALA and LA) increased in synchrony with the ALA/LA ratio, peaking at 1.54, and a 3.2-fold greater Δ-6 desaturase affinity toward ALA over LA was recorded.

Proteins, fatty acids and nutritional value in the muscle of the fish species Mora moro (Risso, 1810)

Deep-water fish are becoming an interesting object of studies and research due to the development of deep fishery activities. This paper analyses the chemical composition and nutritional value of the fish species Mora moro (Risso, 1810) inhabiting deep Mediterranean waters. The fatty acid profile and the principal water-soluble proteins present in the white muscle of this fish species have also been determined. The major fatty acids were 22 : 6n-3, 16 : 0, 18 : 1n-9, 20 : 4n-6 and 20 : 5n-3. The polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content was higher than that of saturated (SFA) and monounsaturated fatty acids, but the ratio PUFA/SFA was lower than the value reported in other studies. Both the atherogenic index and thrombogenic index were very low. Water-soluble proteins were characterised by monodimensional native PAGE and 2-D SDS-gel electrophoresis. Protein patterns showed the presence of parvalbumins and of the principal myofibrillar proteins. Therefore, the deep-water fish M. moro could represent an interesting target for deep-sea fishery and commercial exploitation.