[Differential diagnosis of primary and secondary mathematical learning disability – indications from the dyscalculia test Basis-Math 4–8]

Studies in children with AD(H)D without mathematical learning disability (MLD) as well as studies on the effects of methylphenidate on arithmetic have shown that most deficits in mathematics and most error types commonly described as specific to developmental dyscalculia (e. g., finger-counting, fact-retrieval deficit, complex counting, difficulties with carry/borrow procedures, self-corrections) cannot be classified as such and should thus not be used for the differential diagnosis of primary dyscalculia and secondary MLD. This article proposes using the overall score in the dyscalculia test Basis-Math 4-8 (Moser Opitz et al., 2010) as well as implausible subtraction errors as a marker for dyscalculia and the number of self-corrections made during the test as a cognitive marker for attention deficits. Hierarchical cluster analyses were calculated in a sample of 51 clinically referred children with normal IQ and suspicion of MLD, using IQ, years of schooling, overall score of the Basis-Math 4–8 and number of self-corrections in this test as variables. The results revealed a subgroup with primary dyscalculia as well as three subgroups with secondary MLD (two with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, one with depression and one small subgroup with high IQ). In conclusion, the Basis-Math 4–8 (Moser Opitz et al., 2010) can offer substantial information for the differential diagnosis of dyscalculia and secondary deficits in mathematics due to attention problems and enable optimization of treatment decisions for the different groups.

Finger gnosis predicts a unique but small part of variance in initial arithmetic performance

Recent studies indicated that finger gnosis (i.e., the ability to perceive and differentiate one's own fingers) is associated reliably with basic numerical competencies. In this study, we aimed at examining whether finger gnosis is also a unique predictor for initial arithmetic competencies at the beginning of first grade-and thus before formal math instruction starts. Therefore, we controlled for influences of domain-specific numerical precursor competencies, domain-general cognitive ability, and natural variables such as gender and age. Results from 321 German first-graders revealed that finger gnosis indeed predicted a unique and relevant but nevertheless only small part of the variance in initial arithmetic performance (∼1%-2%) as compared with influences of general cognitive ability and numerical precursor competencies. Taken together, these results substantiated the notion of a unique association between finger gnosis and arithmetic and further corroborate the theoretical idea of finger-based representations contributing to numerical cognition. However, the only small part of variance explained by finger gnosis seems to limit its relevance for diagnostic purposes.

[Specific learning disabilities - from DSM-IV to DSM-5]

The publication of the DSM-5 means changes in the classification and recommendations for diagnosis of specific learning disabilities. Dyslexia and dyscalculia have been reintroduced into the DSM. Three specific learning disorders - impairment in reading, impairment in the written expression, and impairment in mathematics, described by subskills - are now part of the DSM-5. Three subcomponents of the reading disorder are expressly differentiated: word reading accuracy, reading rate, and fluency and reading comprehension. Impaired subskills of the specific learning disorder with impairment in written expression are spelling accuracy, grammar and punctuation accuracy, and clarity and organization of written expression. Four subskills are found in the mathematics disorder: number sense, memorization of arithmetic facts, accurate or fluent calculation, and accurate math reasoning. Each impaired academic domain and subskill should be recorded. A description of the severity degree was also included. The diagnosis is based on a variety of methods, including medical history, clinical interview, school report, teacher evaluation, rating scales, and psychometric tests. The IQ discrepancy criterion was abandoned, though that of age or class discrepancy criterion was retained. The application of a discrepancy is recommended by 1 to 2.5 SD. All three specific developmental disorders are common (prevalence 5 %-15 %), occur early during the first years of formal schooling, and persist into adulthood.

[From brain imaging to good teaching? implicating from neuroscience for research on learning and instruction]

Psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence, in particular attention deficit disorder or specific learning disorders like developmental dyslexia and developmental dyscalculia, affect academic performance and learning at school. Recent advances in neuroscientific research have incited an intensive debate both in the general public and in the field of educational and instructional science as well as to whether and to what extent these new findings in the field of neuroscience might be of importance for school-related learning and instruction. In this review, we first summarize neuroscientific findings related to the development of attention, working memory and executive functions in typically developing children and then evaluate their relevance for school-related learning. We present an overview of neuroimaging studies of specific learning disabilities such as developmental dyslexia and developmental dyscalculia, and critically discuss their practical implications for educational and teaching practice, teacher training, early diagnosis as well as prevention and disorder-specific therapy. We conclude that the new interdisciplinary field of neuroeducation cannot be expected to provide direct innovative educational applications (e.g., teaching methods). Rather, the future potential of neuroscience lies in creating a deeper understanding of the underlying cognitive mechanisms and pathomechanisms of learning processes and learning disorders.