New particle formation from isoprene under upper-tropospheric conditions

Aircraft observations have revealed ubiquitous new particle formation in the tropical upper troposphere over the Amazon1,2 and the Atlantic and Pacific oceans3,4. Although the vapours involved remain unknown, recent satellite observations have revealed surprisingly high night-time isoprene mixing ratios of up to 1 part per billion by volume (ppbv) in the tropical upper troposphere5. Here, in experiments performed with the CERN CLOUD (Cosmics Leaving Outdoor Droplets) chamber, we report new particle formation initiated by the reaction of hydroxyl radicals with isoprene at upper-tropospheric temperatures of -30 °C and -50 °C. We find that isoprene-oxygenated organic molecules (IP-OOM) nucleate at concentrations found in the upper troposphere, without requiring any more vapours. Moreover, the nucleation rates are enhanced 100-fold by extremely low concentrations of sulfuric acid or iodine oxoacids above 105 cm-3, reaching rates around 30 cm-3 s-1 at acid concentrations of 106 cm-3. Our measurements show that nucleation involves sequential addition of IP-OOM, together with zero or one acid molecule in the embryonic molecular clusters. IP-OOM also drive rapid particle growth at 3-60 nm h-1. We find that rapid nucleation and growth rates persist in the presence of NOx at upper-tropospheric concentrations from lightning. Our laboratory measurements show that isoprene emitted by rainforests may drive rapid new particle formation in extensive regions of the tropical upper troposphere1,2, resulting in tens of thousands of particles per cubic centimetre.

Isoprene nitrates drive new particle formation in Amazon's upper troposphere

New particle formation (NPF) in the tropical upper troposphere is a globally important source of atmospheric aerosols1-4. It is known to occur over the Amazon basin, but the nucleation mechanism and chemical precursors have yet to be identified2. Here we present comprehensive in situ aircraft measurements showing that extremely low-volatile oxidation products of isoprene, particularly certain organonitrates, drive NPF in the Amazonian upper troposphere. The organonitrates originate from OH-initiated oxidation of isoprene from forest emissions in the presence of nitrogen oxides from lightning. Nucleation bursts start about 2 h after sunrise in the outflow of nocturnal deep convection, producing high aerosol concentrations of more than 50,000 particles cm-3. We report measurements of characteristic diurnal cycles of precursor gases and particles. Our observations show that the interplay between biogenic isoprene, deep tropical convection with associated lightning, oxidation photochemistry and the low ambient temperature uniquely promotes NPF. The particles grow over time, undergo long-range transport and descend through subsidence to the lower troposphere, in which they can serve as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) that influence the Earth's hydrological cycle, radiation budget and climate1,4-8.

Oxidized organic molecules in the tropical free troposphere over Amazonia

New particle formation (NPF) in the tropical free troposphere (FT) is a globally important source of cloud condensation nuclei, affecting cloud properties and climate. Oxidized organic molecules (OOMs) produced from biogenic volatile organic compounds are believed to contribute to aerosol formation in the tropical FT, but without direct chemical observations. We performed in situ molecular-level OOMs measurements at the Bolivian station Chacaltaya at 5240 m above sea level, on the western edge of Amazonia. For the first time, we demonstrate the presence of OOMs, mainly with 4-5 carbon atoms, in both gas-phase and particle-phase (in terms of mass contribution) measurements in tropical FT air from Amazonia. These observations, combined with air mass history analyses, indicate that the observed OOMs are linked to isoprene emitted from the rainforests hundreds of kilometers away. Based on particle-phase measurements, we find that these compounds can contribute to NPF, at least the growth of newly formed nanoparticles, in the tropical FT on a continental scale. Thus, our study is a fundamental and significant step in understanding the aerosol formation process in the tropical FT.

The Role of Convective Up- and Downdrafts in the Transport of Trace Gases in the Amazon

Deep convective clouds can redistribute gaseous species and particulate matter among different layers of the troposphere with important implications for atmospheric chemistry and climate. The large number of atmospheric trace gases of different volatility makes it challenging to predict their partitioning between hydrometeors and gas phase inside highly dynamic deep convective clouds. In this study, we use an ensemble of 51,200 trajectories simulated with a cloud-resolving model to characterize up- and downdrafts within Amazonian deep convective clouds. We also estimate the transport of a set of hypothetical non-reactive gases of different volatility, within the up- and downdrafts. We find that convective air parcels originating from the boundary layer (i.e., originating at 0.5 km altitude), can transport up to 25% of an intermediate volatility gas species (e.g., methyl hydrogen peroxide) and up to 60% of high volatility gas species (e.g., n-butane) to the cloud outflow above 10 km through the mean convective updraft. At the same time, the same type of gases can be transported to the boundary layer from the middle troposphere (i.e., originating at 5 km) within the mean convective downdraft with an efficiency close to 100%. Low volatility gases (e.g., nitric acid) are not efficiently transported, neither by the updrafts nor downdrafts, if the gas is assumed to be fully retained in a droplet upon freezing. The derived properties of the mean up- and downdraft can be used in future studies for investigating convective transport of a larger set of reactive trace gases.

Amazon boundary layer aerosol concentration sustained by vertical transport during rainfall

The nucleation of atmospheric vapours is an important source of new aerosol particles that can subsequently grow to form cloud condensation nuclei in the atmosphere. Most field studies of atmospheric aerosols over continents are influenced by atmospheric vapours of anthropogenic origin (for example, ref. 2) and, in consequence, aerosol processes in pristine, terrestrial environments remain poorly understood. The Amazon rainforest is one of the few continental regions where aerosol particles and their precursors can be studied under near-natural conditions, but the origin of small aerosol particles that grow into cloud condensation nuclei in the Amazon boundary layer remains unclear. Here we present aircraft- and ground-based measurements under clean conditions during the wet season in the central Amazon basin. We find that high concentrations of small aerosol particles (with diameters of less than 50 nanometres) in the lower free troposphere are transported from the free troposphere into the boundary layer during precipitation events by strong convective downdrafts and weaker downward motions in the trailing stratiform region. This rapid vertical transport can help to maintain the population of particles in the pristine Amazon boundary layer, and may therefore influence cloud properties and climate under natural conditions.

Tropospheric aerosols: size-differentiated chemistry and large-scale spatial distributions

Worldwide interest in atmospheric aerosols has emerged since the late 20th century as a part of concerns for air pollution and radiative forcing of the earth's climate. The use of aircraft and balloons for sampling and the use of remote sensing have dramatically expanded knowledge about tropospheric aerosols. Our survey gives an overview of contemporary tropospheric aerosol chemistry based mainly on in situ measurements. It focuses on fine particles less than 1-2.5 microm in diameter. The physical properties of particles by region and altitude are exemplified by particle size distributions, total number and volume concentration, and optical parameters such as extinction coefficient and aerosol optical depth. Particle chemical characterization is size dependent, differentiated by ubiquitous sulfate, and carbon, partially from anthropogenic activity. Large-scale particle distributions extend to intra- and intercontinental proportions involving plumes from population centers to natural disturbances such as dust storms and vegetation fires. In the marine environment, sea salt adds an important component to aerosols. Generally, aerosol components, most of whose sources are at the earth's surface, tend to dilute and decrease in concentration with height, but often show different (layered) profiles depending on meteorological conditions. Key microscopic processes include new particle formation aloft and cloud interactions, both cloud initiation and cloud evaporation. Measurement campaigns aloft are short term, giving snapshots of inherently transient phenomena in the troposphere. Nevertheless, these data, combined with long-term data at the surface and optical depth and transmission observations, yield a unique picture of global tropospheric particle chemistry.