Spontaneous Molecular Bromine Production in Sea-Salt Aerosols

Bromine chemistry is responsible for the catalytic ozone destruction in the atmosphere. The heterogeneous reactions of sea-salt aerosols are the main abiotic sources of reactive bromine in the atmosphere. Here, we present a novel mechanism for the activation of bromide ions (Br-) by O2 and H2O in the absence of additional oxidants. The laboratory and theoretical calculation results demonstrated that under dark conditions, Br-, O2 and H3O+ could spontaneously generate Br and HO2 radicals through a proton-electron transfer process at the air-water interface and in the liquid phase. Our results also showed that light and acidity could significantly promote the activation of Br- and the production of Br2. The estimated gaseous Br2 production rate was up to 1.55×1010 molecules cm-2 ⋅ s-1 under light and acidic conditions; these results showed a significant contribution to the atmospheric reactive bromine budget. The reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated during Br- activation could promote the multiphase oxidation of SO2 to produce sulfuric acid, while the increase in acidity had a positive feedback effect on Br- activation. Our findings highlight the crucial role of the proton-electron transfer process in Br2 production; here, H3O+ facilitates the activation of Br- by O2, serves as a significant source of atmospheric reactive bromine and exerts a profound impact on the atmospheric oxidation capacity.

Aqueous phase oxidation of bisulfite influenced by nitrate and its photolysis

Nitrate aerosol is ubiquitous in the atmosphere. Nitrate in the particulate and aqueous phase can affect various atmospheric chemical processes through its hygroscopicity and photolysis. The impacts of nitrate photolysis on the heterogeneous oxidation of SO₂ have been attracting attention. However, the influence of nitrate on heterogeneous aqueous phase formation of atmospheric sulfate aerosol is still not very clear. In this study, the effects of nitrate on aqueous phase oxidation of bisulfite under different conditions were investigated. Results show that nitrate photolysis can promote the oxidation of bisulfite to sulfate, especially in the presence of O₂. It is found that pH plays a significant role in the reaction, and ammonium sulfate has significant impacts on the enhancement of aqueous phase sulfate production through regulating the pH of solution. An apparent synergism is found among halogen chemistry, nitrate and its photochemistry and S (IV) aqueous oxidation, especially the oxidation of halide ions by nitrate and its photolysis and by the intermediate products produced by the free radical chain oxidation of S (IV) in acidic solution, leading to the coupling of the redox cycle of halogen with the oxidation of bisulfite, which promotes the continuous aqueous oxidation of bisulfite and the formation of sulfate. In addition, the role of nitrate itself in the aqueous phase oxidation of bisulfite is revealed. These results provide a new insight into the heterogeneous aqueous phase oxidation pathways and mechanisms of SO₂ in cloud and fog droplets and haze particles.

Halogen Radical Oxidants in Natural and Engineered Aquatic Systems

Photochemical reactions contribute to the transformation of contaminants and biogeochemically important substrates in environmental aquatic systems. Recent research has demonstrated that halogen radicals (e.g., Cl^•, Br^•, Cl₂^•-, BrCl^•-, Br₂^•-) impact photochemical processes in sunlit estuarine and coastal waters rich in halides (e.g., chloride, Cl^-, and bromide, Br^-). In addition, halogen radicals participate in contaminant degradation in some engineered processes, including chlorine photolysis for drinking water treatment and several radical-based processes for brine and wastewater treatment. Halogen radicals react selectively with substrates (with bimolecular rate constants spanning several orders of magnitude) and via several potential chemical mechanisms. Consequently, their role in photochemical processes remains challenging to assess. This review presents an integrative analysis of the chemistry of halogen radicals and their contribution to aquatic photochemistry in sunlit surface waters and engineered treatment systems. We evaluate existing data on the generation, speciation, and reactivity of halogen radicals, as well as experimental and computational approaches used to obtain this data. By evaluating existing data and identifying major uncertainties, this review provides a basis to assess the impact of halogen radicals on photochemical processes in both saline surface waters and engineered treatment systems.

Impact of Wildfire Emissions on Chloride and Bromide Depletion in Marine Aerosol Particles

This work examines particulate chloride (Cl^-) and bromide (Br^-) depletion in marine aerosol particles influenced by wildfires at a coastal California site in the summers of 2013 and 2016. Chloride exhibited a dominant coarse mode due to sea salt influence, with substantially diminished concentrations during fire periods as compared to nonfire periods. Bromide exhibited a peak in the submicrometer range during fire and nonfire periods, with an additional supermicrometer peak in the latter periods. Chloride and Br^- depletions were enhanced during fire periods as compared to nonfire periods. The highest observed %Cl^- depletion occurred in the submicrometer range, with maximum values of 98.9% (0.32-0.56 μm) and 85.6% (0.56-1 μm) during fire and nonfire periods, respectively. The highest %Br^- depletion occurred in the supermicrometer range during fire and nonfire periods with peak depletion between 1.8-3.2 μm (78.8% and 58.6%, respectively). When accounting for the neutralization of sulfate by ammonium, organic acid particles showed the greatest influence on Cl^- depletion in the submicrometer range. These results have implications for aerosol hygroscopicity and radiative forcing in areas with wildfire influence owing to depletion effects on composition.

Chlorine atom initiated reactions of selected tropospheric halocarbons — Kinetic and product studies

Halogens are suggested as important atmospheric oxidants in the marine boundary layer. The room-temperature kinetics of the chlorine-initiated reactions of three biogenic brominated hydrocarbons and four anthropogenic chlorinated ethenes was investigated by gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (GC–FID) at a pressure of 1 atm (1 atm = 101.325 kPa) in air, using the relative rate technique. The rate constants (× 1013 cm3 molecule–1 s–1) for CH2Br2, CHBr2Cl, and CHBr3 reactions at 298 ± 2 K were found to be 4.25 ± 0.65, 2.03 ± 0.31, and 2.81 ± 0.41, respectively, using methane as a reference compound. Room temperature rate constants (±1011 cm3 molecule–1 s–1) obtained for 1,1-dichloroethene, cis-dichloroethene, trans-dichloroethene, and trichloroethene using ethene as a reference are 13.4 ± 3.3, 9.1 ± 2.3, 7.4 ± 1.8, and 7.7 ± 1.9, respectively. The rate constants of chlorine-atom reactions with various hydrocarbons obtained in this work and taken from literature were correlated with corresponding rate constants of the OH radical available in the literature. The temperature dependences for the reactions of chlorine atoms with chlorinated ethenes were studied within the 298–358 K range. The corresponding Arrhenius expressions for the rate constants are (cm3 molecule–1 s–1): ln k = (–25.26 ± 0.17) – (758 ± 55)/T for 1,1-dichloroethene, ln k = (–25.79 ± 0.10) – (799 ± 34)/T for cis-dichloroethene, ln k = (–26.74 ± 0.09) – (1018 ± 28)/T for trans-dichloroethene, and ln k = (–26.10 ± 0.26) – (846 ± 83)/T for trichloroethene. In addition, product studies for the chlorine-initiated gas phase oxidation reactions of CHBr3 and CHBr2Cl were performed using gas chromatography with mass spectrometric detection (GC–MS). The only identified product for the reaction of CHBr3 with Cl reaction was COBr2, while for the CHBr2Cl + Cl reaction, COBrCl and COCl2 were observed, indicating the possibility of halogen atom release. The atmospheric implications of the results obtained are discussed.Key words: tropospheric reactions, kinetics, chlorine atoms, chlorinated hydrocarbons, brominated hydrocarbons.

Br2 Production from the Heterogeneous Reaction of Gas-Phase OH with Aqueous Salt Solutions: Impacts of Acidity, Halide Concentration, and Organic Surfactants

This study reports the first laboratory measurement of gas-phase Br2 production from the reaction between gas-phase hydroxyl radicals and aqueous salt solutions. Experiments were conducted at 269 K in a rotating wetted-wall flow tube coupled to a chemical-ionization mass spectrometer for analysis of gas-phase components. From both pure NaBr solutions and mixed NaCl/NaBr solutions, the amount of Br2 released was found to increase with increasing acidity, whereas it was found to vary little with increasing concentration of bromide ions in the sample. For mixed NaCl/NaBr solutions, Br2 was formed preferentially over Cl2 unless the Br- levels in the solution were significantly depleted by OH oxidation, at which point Cl2 formation was observed. Presence of a surfactant in solution, sodium dodecyl sulfate, significantly suppressed the formation of Br2; this is the first indication that an organic surfactant can affect the rate of interfacial mass transfer of OH to an aqueous surface. The OH-mediated oxidation of bromide may serve as a source of active bromine in the troposphere and contribute to the subsequent destruction of ozone that proceeds in marine-influenced regions of the troposphere.

The heterogeneous kinetics of HOBr and HOCl on acidified sea salt and model aerosol at 40–90% relative humidity and ambient temperature

The HOBr and HOCl uptake coefficient gamma on H(2)SO(4)-acidified submicron salt aerosol of known size distribution was measured in an atmospheric pressure laminar flow reactor. The interaction time of the trace gas with the aerosol was in the range 15 to 90 s and led to gamma values in the range 10(-4) to 10(-2). The acidity of the aerosol is essential in order to enable heterogeneous reactions of HOBr on NaCl, recrystallized sea salt (RSS) and natural sea salt (NSS) aerosols. Specifically, HOCl only reacts on acidified NSS aerosol with a gamma ranging from 0.4 x 10(-3) to 1.8 x 10(-3) at a relative humidity (rh) at 40 and 85%, respectively. Uptake experiments of HOBr on aqueous H(2)SO(4) as well as on H(2)SO(4)-acidified NaCl, RSS or NSS aerosol were performed for rh ranging from 40 to 93%. The gamma value of HOBr on acidified NSS reaches a maximum gamma = 1.9 x 10(-2) at rh = 76 +/- 1% and significantly decreases with increasing rh in contrast to acidified NaCl and RSS aerosols whose gamma values remain high at gamma = (1.0 +/- 0.2) x 10(-2) at rh >/= 80%. An explanation based on the formation of an organic coating on NSS aerosol with increasing rh is proposed.

Gas-phase radical chemistry in the troposphere

Atmospheric free radicals are low concentration, relatively fast reacting species whose influence is felt throughout the atmosphere. Reactive radicals have a key role in maintaining a balanced atmospheric composition through their central function in controlling the oxidative capacity of the atmosphere. In this tutorial review, the chemistry of three main groups of atmospheric radicals HO(x), NO(x) and XO(x)(X = Cl, Br, I) are examined in terms of their sources, interconversions and sinks. Key examples of the chemistry are given for each group of radicals in their atmospheric context.

Water-Catalyzed Dehalogenation Reactions of the Isomer of CBr4 and Its Reaction Products and a Comparison to Analogous Reactions of the Isomers of Di- and Trihalomethanes

A combined experimental and theoretical study of the UV photolysis of a typical tetrahalomethane, CBr4, in water and acetonitrile/water was performed. Ultraviolet photolysis of low concentrations of CBr4 in water mostly leads to the production of four HBr leaving groups and CO2. Picosecond time-resolved resonance Raman (Ps-TR3) experiments and ab initio calculations indicate that water-catalyzed O-H insertion/HBr elimination of the isomer of CBr4 and subsequent reactions of its products lead to the formation of these products. The UV photolyses of di-, tri-, and tetrahalomethanes at low concentrations in water-solvated environments are compared to one another. This comparison enables a general reaction scheme to be deduced that can account for the different products produced by UV photolysis of low concentrations of di-, tri-, and tetrahalomethanes in water. The fate of the (halo)formaldehyde intermediate in the chemical reaction mechanism is the key to determining how many strong acid leaving groups are produced and which carbon atom final product is likely formed by UV photolysis of a polyhalomethane at low concentrations in a water-solvated environment.

Efficient dehalogenation of polyhalomethanes and production of strong acids in aqueous environments: Water-catalyzed O–H-insertion and HI-elimination reactions of isodiiodomethane (CH2I–I) with water

A combined experimental and theoretical study of the ultraviolet photolysis of CH2I2 in water is reported. Ultraviolet photolysis of low concentrations of CH2I2 in water was experimentally observed to lead to almost complete conversion into CH2(OH)2 and 2HI products. Picosecond time-resolved resonance Raman spectroscopy experiments in mixed water/acetonitrile solvents (25%-75% water) showed that appreciable amounts of isodiiodomethane (CH2I-I) were formed within several picoseconds and the decay of the CH2I-I species became substantially shorter with increasing water concentration, suggesting that CH2I-I may be reacting with water. Ab initio calculations demonstrate the CH2I-I species is able to react readily with water via a water-catalyzed O--H-insertion and HI-elimination reaction followed by its CH2I(OH) product undergoing a further water-catalyzed HI-elimination reaction to make a H2C=O product. These HI-elimination reactions produce the two HI leaving groups observed experimentally and the H2C=O product further reacts with water to produce the other final CH2(OH)2 product observed in the photochemistry experiments. These results suggest that CH2I-I is the species that reacts with water to produce the CH2(OH)2 and 2HI products seen in the photochemistry experiments. The present study demonstrates that ultraviolet photolysis of CH2I2 at low concentration leads to efficient dehalogenation and release of multiple strong acid (HI) leaving groups. Some possible ramifications for the decomposition of polyhalomethanes and halomethanols in aqueous environments as well as the photochemistry of polyhalomethanes in the natural environment are briefly discussed.

Direct observation of an isopolyhalomethane O–H insertion reaction with water: Picosecond time-resolved resonance Raman (ps-TR3) study of the isobromoform reaction with water to produce a CHBr2OH product

Picosecond time-resolved resonance Raman (ps-TR3) spectroscopy was used to obtain the first definitive spectroscopic observation of an isopolyhalomethane O-H insertion reaction with water. The ps-TR3 spectra show that isobromoform is produced within several picoseconds after photolysis of CHBr3 and then reacts on the hundreds of picosecond time scale with water to produce a CHBr2OH reaction product. Photolysis of low concentrations of bromoform in aqueous solution resulted in noticeable formation of HBr strong acid. Ab initio calculations show that isobromoform can react with water to produce a CHBr2(OH) O-H insertion reaction product and a HBr leaving group. This is consistent with both the ps-TR3 experiments that observe the reaction of isobromoform with water to form a CHBr2(OH) product and photolysis experiments that show HBr acid formation. We briefly discuss the implications of these results for the phase dependent behavior of polyhalomethane photochemistry in the gas phase versus water solvated environments.

Comparison of the dehalogenation of polyhalomethanes and production of strong acids in aqueous and salt (NaCl) water environments: Ultraviolet photolysis of CH[sub 2]I[sub 2]

The ultraviolet photolysis of CH(2)I(2) was studied in water and salt water solutions using photochemistry and picosecond time-resolved resonance Raman spectroscopy. Photolysis in both types of environments produces mainly CH(2)(OH)(2) and HI products. However, photolysis of CH(2)I(2) in salt water leads to the formation of different products/intermediates (CH(2)ICl and Cl(2) (-)) not observed in the absence of salt in aqueous solutions. The amount of CH(2)(OH)(2) and HI products appears to decrease after photolysis of CH(2)I(2) in salt water compared to pure water. We briefly discuss possible implications of these results for photolysis of CH(2)I(2) and other polyhalomethanes in sea water and other salt aqueous environments compared to nonsalt water solvated environments.

The role of halogen species in the troposphere

While the role of reactive halogen species (e.g. Cl, Br) in the destruction of the stratospheric ozone layer is well known, their role in the troposphere was investigated only since their destructive effect on boundary layer ozone after polar sunrise became obvious. During these 'Polar Tropospheric Ozone Hole' events O(3) is completely destroyed in the lowest approximately 1000 m of the atmosphere on areas of several million square kilometres. Up to now it was assumed that these events were confined to the polar regions during springtime. However, during the last few years significant amounts of BrO and Cl-atoms were also found outside the Arctic and Antarctic boundary layer. Recently even higher BrO mixing ratios (up to 176 ppt) were detected by optical absorption spectroscopy (DOAS) in the Dead Sea basin during summer. In addition, evidence is accumulating that BrO (at levels around 1-2 ppt) is also occurring in the free troposphere at all latitudes. In contrast to the stratosphere, where halogens are released from species, which are very long lived in the troposphere, likely sources of boundary layer Br and Cl are autocatalytic oxidation of sea salt halides (the 'Bromine Explosion'), while precursors of free tropospheric BrO and coastal IO probably are short-lived organo-halogen species. At the levels suggested by the available measurements reactive halogen species have a profound effect on tropospheric chemistry: In the polar boundary layer during 'halogen events' ozone is usually completely lost within hours or days. In the free troposphere the effective O(3)-losses due to halogens could be comparable to the known photochemical O(3) destruction. Further interesting consequences include the increase of OH levels and (at low NO(X)) the decrease of the HO(2)/OH ratio in the free troposphere.

Halogen production from aqueous tropospheric particles

Box model studies have been performed to study the role of aqueous phase chemistry with regard to halogen activation for marine and urban clouds and the marine aerosol as well. Different chemical pathways leading to halogen activation in diluted cloud droplets and highly concentrated sea salt aerosol particles are investigated. The concentration of halides in cloud droplets is significantly smaller than in sea-salt particles, and hence different reaction sequences control the overall chemical conversions. In diluted droplets radical chemistry involving OH, NO(3), Cl/Cl(2)(-)/ClOH(-), and Br/Br(2)(-)/BrOH(-) gains in importance and pH independent pathways lead to the release of halogens from the particle phase whereas the chemistry in aerosol particles with high electrolyte concentrations is controlled by non-radical reactions at high ionic strengths and relatively low pH values. For the simulation of halogen activation in tropospheric clouds and aqueous aerosol particles in different environments a halogen module was developed including both gas and aqueous phase processes of halogen containing species. This module is coupled to a base mechanism consisting of RACM (Regional Atmospheric Chemistry Mechanism) and the Chemical Aqueous Phase Radical Mechanism CAPRAM 2.4 (MODAC-mechanism). Phase exchange is described by the resistance model by Chemistry of Multiphase Atmospheric Systems, NATO ASI Series, 1986. It can be shown that under cloud conditions the bromine atom is mainly produced by OH initiated reactions, i.e. its concentration maximum is reached at noon. In contrast, the concentration level of chlorine atoms is linked to NO(3) radical chemistry leading to a smaller amplitude between day and night time concentrations. The contribution of radical processes to halogen atom formation in the particle phase is evident, e.g. by halogen atoms which undergo direct phase transfer. Furthermore, the application of the multiphase model for initial concentrations for sea-salt aerosols shows that the particle phase can act as a main source of halogen containing molecules (Cl(2), BrCl, Br(2)) which are photolysed in the gas phase to yield halogen atoms (about 70% of all Cl sources and more than 99% for Br).

Dynamic oxidation of gaseous mercury in the Arctic troposphere at polar sunrise

Gaseous elemental mercury (Hg0) is a globally distributed air toxin with a long atmospheric residence time. Any process that reduces its atmospheric lifetime increases its potential accumulation in the biosphere. Our data from Barrow, AK, at 71 degrees N show that rapid, photochemically driven oxidation of boundary-layer Hg0 after polar sunrise, probably by reactive halogens, creates a rapidly depositing species of oxidized gaseous mercury in the remote Arctic troposphere at concentrations in excess of 900 pg m(-3). This mercury accumulates in the snowpack during polar spring at an accelerated rate in a form that is bioavailable to bacteria and is released with snowmelt during the summer emergence of the Arctic ecosystem. Evidence suggests that this is a recent phenomenon that may be occurring throughout the earth's polar regions.

Equilibrium and kinetics of bromine chloride hydrolysis

Aqueous-phase halogen reactions play an important role in tropospheric ozone depletion that is observed during Arctic sunrise where bromine chloride is a key intermediate. The temperature dependencies of BrCl(aq) equilibration with BrCl2-, HOBr(aq), Br2(aq), Cl2(aq), HOCl(aq), Br-, and other species (Br3-, Br2Cl-, Cl3-, OBr-, and OCI-) are determined as a function of Cl- concentration from pH 0 to pH 7. Values for K1 (=[BrCl2-]/([BrCl(aq)][Cl-])) at mu = 1.0 M are 3.8 M(-1) at 25.0 degrees C, 4.7 M(-1) at 10.0 degrees C, and 5.5 M(-1) at 0.0 degrees C, with deltaH1 degrees = -9.9 kJ mol(-1) and deltaS1 degrees = -22 J K(-1) mol(-1). BrCl(aq) hydrolysis equilibria have little or no temperature dependence with Kh1 (=[HOBr(aq)][Cl-][H+]/[BrCl(aq)]) = 1.3 x 10(-4) M2 from 25.0 to 5.0 degrees C, mu = 1.0 M. When conditions are adjusted to give a rapid partial hydrolysis of BrCl in equilibrium with HOBr and Cl- at p[H+] 4.31, a relatively slow reaction (kobsd = 2.4 s(-1)) to form HOCl and Br- is observed. This takes place via BrCl reaction with Cl- to form Cl2, which hydrolyzes in the rate-determining step to give HOCl. On the other hand, the rate of complete BrCl hydrolysis to form HOBr and Cl- at p[H+] 6.4 is extremely rapid with a first-order rate constant of 3.0 x 10(6) s(-1) at 25.0 degrees C. The reverse reaction between HOBr, Cl-, and H+ has a rate constant of 2.3 x 10(10) M(-2) s(-1), so that in seawater, where [Cl-]/[Br-] = 700, the formation of BrCl is much faster than the formation of Br2 from HOBr, Br-, and H+. Rapid formation of BrCl(aq) and its subsequent reaction with Br- is a viable pathway to give Br2(aq). Photolysis of Br2(g) is believed to initiate the reactions associated with ozone depletion.