Infrared Spectra of Venus

A historical account of observations of Venus and their interpretation is given. The major constituent of the atmosphere on Venus (CO2) was detected spectroscopically forty years ago, and minor constituents (CO, HF, HCl) have been found more recently. The infrared spectra also provide a means of studying the motions of her cloudy atmosphere. The composition of the clouds has been sought in the reflection spectrum of Venus, and some of the evidence for their nature is discussed.

Observations of the microwave emission of Venus from 1.3 to 3.6 cm

Laboratory measurements of Steffes (1986) have suggested that the intensity and shape of the microwave spectrum of Venus might be especially sensitive to the subcloud abundance of constituents such as SO2 and gaseous H2SO4. It was likewise suggested that some variations of the shape of the emission spectrum might occur between 1.5 and 3 cm (10 to 20 GHz), a wavelength range which had previously only been sparsely observed. As a result, coordinated observations of Venus emission were conducted at four wavelengths between 1.35 cm (22.2 GHz) and 3.6 cm (8.42 GHz) using the 43-m NRAO antenna at Green Bank, West Virginia, and the 64-m antenna at NASA's Deep Space Communication Complex, Goldstone, California. In this paper, we report the methodology and results of these observations, and compare the results with other observations and with calculated emission spectra. We conclude that the observed emission spectrum is consistent with an average subcloud abundance of gaseous H2SO4 in equatorial and midlatitude regions which is approximately 5 ppm. It is suggested that additional measurements of atmospheric microwave opacity be made with the Pioneer-Venus Orbiter Radio Occultation experiment to search for temporal and spatial variations in gaseous H2SO4 abundance in the Venus atmosphere. An upper limit for the subcloud abundance of SO2 is also determined.

Microwave Measurements of Carbon Monoxide on Titan

The ratio of the flux density of Titan was measured in two 200-megahertz bands, one centered on the (1-0) rotation line of carbon monoxide at 115.3 gigahertz and the other 2600 megahertz lower. The measurements were made with a complex-correlation technique on the new millimeter-wavelength interferometer at the Owens Valley Radio Observatory, Big Pine, California. The excess flux in the carbon monoxide band is interpreted as a strong detection of carbon monoxide and a mixing ratio, assumed constant, of 6 x 10(-5). The brightness temperature of Titan at 112.6 gigahertz is 69 +/- 10 kelvins, consistent with atmospheric emission from just below the tropopause.

Venus: New Microwave Measurements Show No Atmospheric Water Vapor

Two sets of passive radio observations of Venus-measurements of the spectrum of the disk temperature near the 1-centimeter wavelength, and interferometric measurements of the planetary limb darkening at the 1.35-centimeter water vapor resonance-show no evidence of water vapor in the lower atmosphere of Venus. The upper limit of 2 x 10(-3) for the mixing ratio of water vapor is substantially less than the amounts derived from the Venera space probes (0.5 x 10(-2) to 2.5 x 10(-2)). This amount of water vapor cannot produce dense clouds, and it is doubtful that it may contribute significantly to a greenhouse effect.

Venus: Radar Determination of Gravity Potential

We describe a method for the determination of the gravity potential of Venus from multiple-frequency radar measurements. The method is based on the strong frequency dependence of the absorption of radio waves in Venus' atmosphere. Comparison of the differing radar reflection intensities at several frequencies yields the height of the surface relative to a reference pressure contour; combination with measurements of round-trip echo delays allows the pressure, and hence the gravity potential contour, to be mapped relative to the mean planet radius. Since calibration data from other frequencies are unavailable, the absorption-sensitive Haystack Observatory data have been analyzed under the assumption of uniform surface reflectivity to yield a gravity equipotential contour for the equatorial region and a tentative upper bound of 6 x 10(-4) on the fractional difference of Venus' principal equatorial moments of inertia. The minima in the equipotential contours appear to be associated with topographic minima.

Polar Temperature of Venus

The presence of substantial polar cooling of Venus, as derived from microwave interferometry at 10.6 cm wavelength, is shown to be open to doubt. Other microwave measurements give little evidence for significant pole-ward variation in temperature on the planet.

Venus: An Isothermal Lower Atmosphere?

Use of Earth-based microwave data in extrapolating the atmospheric profile of Venus below the region probed by Mariner V and Venera 4 reveals an isothermal layer at 670 degrees +/- 20 degrees K that extends to an altitude of 7 +/- 2 kilometers. This model gives a value of 6054.8 kilometers for the radius of Venus, and agreement with brightness spectrum, radar cross sections, and results of microwave interferometry.

Venus: Lower Atmosphere Not Measured

The common ranges of pressure and temperature of the atmosphere of Venus measured last October establish the connection between the Soviet Venera 4 altitude scale and the United States Mariner V radial scale. But if the Venera 4 measurements extended to the surface, as claimed, this comparison implies a radius of the planet which is about 25 kilometers greater than the radius deduced from Earth-based radar data. This impasse has been resolved in favor of the smaller value by a new determination of the radius which is more direct than the method used in deriving the radar radius, and which involves concurrent ranging from Earth both to Mariner V near encounter and to the surface of Venus. It is concluded that neither spacecraft reported on atmospheric conditions near the level of the mean surface, but extrapolations of the measurements yield surface values for mid-latitudes of 100 atmospheres pressure (within a factor of 1.5) and 700 degrees K temperature (within 100 degrees ), in distinction to the Soviet values of 19+/-2 atmospheres and 544 degrees +/-10 degrees K. The higher values support radiometric and radar data on temperature and atmospheric absorption. It appears that the Soviet probe was not designed to work through such a thick atmosphere. A particularly simple (times two) ambiguity in the Venera 4 altimeter reading suggests itself, since this would bring all other data into excellent agreement and would explain the reason for the supposition that the probe reached the surface.

Venus: Estimates of the Surface Temperature and Pressure from Radio and Radar Measurements

The radio brightness temperature and radar cross section spectra of Venus are in much better accord with surface boundary conditions deduced from a combination of the Mariner V results and the radar radius than those obtained by the Venera 4 space probe. The average surface temperature and pressure are approximately 750 degrees K and 90 atmospheres.

Venus: Implications from Microwave Spectroscopy of the Atmospheric Content of Water Vapor

From comparison of theoretical and observed microwave brightness temperatures of Venus at 1.35 centimeters, the center of a water-vapor line, we obtain an upper limit of 0.8 percent for the water-vapor mixing ratio in the lower atmosphere. This limit is consistent with the amount of water vapor detected by Venera 4, the existence of aqueous ice clouds, and a greenhouse effect caused by water vapor and carbon dioxide. The computed spectra suggest that a sensitive procedure for detection of water vapor is examination of the wavelength region between I and 1.4 centimeters.

The Case for the Radar Radius of Venus

The Venus radius of 6085 +/- 10 kilometers, deduced from combining observations made with the Venera 4 and Mariner V space probes is incompatible with the value of 6050 +/- kilometers determined from Earth-based radar mesurements.