Heart rate and skin conductance in behaviorally inhibited Mauritian children

Emotional dysregulation as a mediator linking sleep disturbance with aggressive behaviors: Disentangling between- and within-person associations

PURPOSE

Sleep problems and aggressive behaviors are two prevalent and highly related problems among adolescents and emerging adults worldwide. This longitudinal study examined the reciprocal relations between sleep disturbance with aggressive behaviors and whether emotional dysregulation functioned as mediator of the relations, after separating within-person effects from between-person effects.

METHODS

A total of 4352 freshman students participated in a five-wave longitudinal study across two and half years. Data from the second wave to the fourth wave was used in this study. Random intercept cross-lagged panel models (RI-CLPM) were utilized to separate between- and within-person effects.

RESULTS

Results from RI-CLPM showed: (a) Sleep disturbance and aggressive behaviors bidirectionally predicted each other at the within-person level; (b) Emotional dysregulation functioned as a mediator of the associations from sleep disturbance to aggressive behaviors at the within-person level.

CONCLUSION

These findings advanced the literature by elucidating longitudinal associations among sleep disturbance, emotional dysregulation, and aggressive behaviors at the within-person level, suggesting that prevention and intervention programs targeted at improving emotional regulation skills may be helpful to prevent the developmental pathway from sleep disturbance to aggressive behaviors among college students.

Negative caregiving and stress reactivity moderate the relation between early life stress and externalizing in adolescence

Exposure to early life stress (ELS) is common and has been implicated in the development of psychopathology; importantly, however, many individuals who experience ELS do not develop emotional or behavioral difficulties. Prior research implicates stress exposure, negative caregiving behaviors, and patterns of physiological reactivity in predicting psychological well-being; however, the precise factors that contribute to resilience versus vulnerability to the adverse effects of stress exposures are not well understood. In a longitudinal study of adolescents (N = 120) assessed at three timepoints approximately every 2 years beginning at the ages of 913 years, we examined the roles of autonomic reactivity to social stress (assessed through skin conductance during the Trier Social Stress Task) and negative caregiving behaviors as moderators of the association between exposure to ELS and internalizing and externalizing symptoms. We found that the relation between ELS and externalizing symptoms was moderated by both negative caregiving and autonomic reactivity, such that the relation between ELS and externalizing was positive at low levels of negative caregiving and at high levels of autonomic reactivity; interactions predicting internalizing symptoms were not statistically significant. These findings highlight the importance of considering physiological and environmental variables that might contribute to susceptibility or resilience to symptoms of psychopathology following exposure to ELS.

The centrality of temperament to the research domain criteria (RDoC): The earliest building blocks of psychopathology

The research domain criteria (RDoC) is an innovative approach designed to explore dimensions of human behavior. The aim of this approach is to move beyond the limits of psychiatric categories in the hope of aligning the identification of psychological health and dysfunction with clinical neuroscience. Despite its contributions to adult psychopathology research, RDoC undervalues ontogenetic development, which circumscribes our understanding of the etiologies, trajectories, and maintaining mechanisms of psychopathology risk. In this paper, we argue that integrating temperament research into the RDoC framework will advance our understanding of the mechanistic origins of psychopathology beginning in infancy. In illustrating this approach, we propose the incorporation of core principles of temperament theories into a new "life span considerations" subsection as one option for infusing development into the RDoC matrix. In doing so, researchers and clinicians may ultimately have the tools necessary to support emotional development and reduce a young child's likelihood of psychological dysfunction beginning in the first years of life.

Cardiac Autonomic Function and Psychological Characteristics of Heterosexual Female Perpetrators of Intimate Partner Physical Aggression

Intimate partner violence is predominantly viewed as a social problem of men's violence against women. However, a growing evidence base suggests an equal prevalence rate for male and female perpetrated intimate partner physical aggression. Moreover, female perpetrated intimate partner violence is often assumed to be reactive, yet there is limited evidence to support this notion. In this article, we describe the results of two studies that investigated the prevalence of female perpetrated intimate partner physical aggression, and its correlates in heterosexual female university students. The relationships of personality traits, resting heart rate, and heart rate variability (a correlate of vagal activity) were compared between females who did and did not report having engaged in intimate partner physical aggression. In Study 1, we found that 30.9% of participants reported enacting intimate partner physical aggression during the preceding 12 months. This finding suggests that a considerable number of undergraduate females aggress against their intimate partners. Perpetrators, relative to nonperpetrators, scored higher on secondary psychopathic traits. In Study 2, female intimate partner violence was shown to be associated with low resting heart rate and high heart rate variability. Perpetrators, relative to nonperpetrators, scored higher on psychopathic traits that index emotional resilience and unempathic tendencies, and reported increased proactive and reactive aggression. This raises the possibility that some incidences of female intimate partner physical aggression represent proactive aggressive acts. These findings also support the frequently found association between low resting heart rate and aggression, but raise the prospect that the reported aggressive acts reflect high heart rate variability and strong parasympathetic nervous system activity.

Emotional Reactivity and Regulation in Preschool-Age Children Who Do and Do Not Stutter: Evidence From Autonomic Nervous System Measures

Purpose: This experimental cross-sectional research study examined the emotional reactivity and emotion regulation in preschool-age children who do (CWS) and do not stutter (CWNS) by assessing their psychophysiological response during rest and while viewing pictures from the International Affective Picture System (Lang et al., 2008).

Method: Participants were 18 CWS (16 boys and two girls; mean age 4 years, 5 months) and 18 age- and gender-matched CWNS. Participants' psychophysiological responses were measured during two baselines and two picture viewing conditions. Skin conductance level (SCL) and heart rate were measured to assess emotional reactivity. Respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) was measured to assess emotional regulation. Participants' shyness and executive function were assessed via parent report and considered for their effects on participants' psychophysiological responses.

Results: First, CWNS and CWS did not differ in their initial baseline SCL, heart rate, or RSA, but all participants had higher SCL and lower RSA in the second baseline, subsequent to the first challenge condition, compared to the first baseline. Second, during the challenge conditions, CWS did not differ from CWNS in their SCL, but showed a significantly higher heart rate than CWNS. Third, CWS exhibited a significantly lower RSA during the challenge conditions compared to CWNS. Lastly, the temperamental quality of shyness was associated with preschool-age children's SCL, such that participants who were rated higher in shyness had a higher SCL during the challenge conditions. Participants' executive function had a marginally significant effect on the RSA, such that the participants who had higher executive function composite scores exhibited lower RSA during the challenge conditions.

Conclusions: Our findings suggest that CWS and CWNS did not differ in their emotional reactivity and emotional regulation abilities at rest. During challenge conditions, however, CWS tended to be more emotionally reactive, as indicated by a higher heart rate, and also employed more emotional regulation, indexed by a greater decrease in RSA, compared to CWNS. Preschool-age children's behavior is largely dominated by reactivity, but there is the emergence of regulation, which can help children adjust to various contextual demands. For CWS who are more emotionally reactive, regulatory skills may be particularly critical to their prognosis and treatment.

The children of Superstorm Sandy: Maternal prenatal depression blunts offspring electrodermal activity

We set out to examine the relations between prenatal exposure to the natural disaster Superstorm Sandy, maternal depression, and offspring electrodermal activity (EDA). EDA was measured via skin conductance response (SCR) magnitude in 198 children (M = 42.54 months, SD = 12.76) during a startle paradigm. In keeping with prior research, we expected prenatal depression to be associated with hyporeactive EDA and prenatal stress to be associated with hyperreactive EDA. SCR magnitude was lower in children prenatally exposed to depression alone, when compared to Superstorm Sandy, and controls. SCR magnitude of children prenatally exposed to both maternal depression and the storm was lower than that of all other groups. Our results emphasize the influence of maternal prenatal mental health, support targeted risk assessment for children who experienced an adverse prenatal environment, and highlight the need for a deeper understanding of the interactions between maternal mood and stress on the developing child.

Resting Heart Rate and Psychopathy Revisited: Findings From the Add Health Survey

Despite the prior linkages of low resting heart rate to antisocial behavior broadly defined, less work has been done examining possible associations between heart rate to psychopathic traits. The small body of research on the topic that has been conducted so far seems to suggest an inverse relationship between the two constructs. A smaller number of studies has found the opposite result, however, and some of the previous studies have been limited by small sample sizes and unrepresentative samples. The current study attempts to help clarify the relationship between resting heart rate and psychopathic traits in a large, nationally representative sample (analytical N ranged from 14,173-14,220) using an alternative measure of psychopathic traits that is less focused on antisocial processes, and rooted in personality traits. No significant relationship between heart rate and psychopathic traits, or heart rate and a measure of cold-heartedness, was found. It is possible that previous findings of a link between heart rate and psychopathy have been driven by the inclusion of overt antisocial behavior in many traditional psychopathy measures. Further work is needed to confirm the associations (or lack thereof) between heart rate and the behavioral, affective, and personality trait aspects of psychopathy.

Sex differences in the relations between infant temperament and electrodermal responses in early childhood

The present study examines the relationship between sex, infant temperament, and childhood psychophysiological reactivity via electrodermal activity (EDA). Both temperament and EDA are known to be relatively stable traits across the lifespan reflecting individual reactivity and regulation linked to suboptimal behavioral development and risk for psychopathology. However, little is known about the role of sex in the relationship between temperament and EDA. As a part of a larger longitudinal study of behavioral development, 125 participants were followed from birth till 3 years-old to examine the relationship between temperament and psychophysiological reactivity in different gender groups. Measurements of temperament at 6 months-old, and EDA, via skin conductance response (SCR) rate to a series of six startling auditory stimuli at 3 years-old were collected. Median splits of SCR scores and three temperament dimensions (positive affect, negative affect, and regulation) were created to designate high/low groups. Results indicate sex moderated the relationships between temperament traits and SCR rates. Specifically, low positive affect was associated with an increased risk for high psychophysiological reactivity in boys (odds ratio = 3.8), whereas high regulation was associated with an increased risk for greater reactivity in girls (odds ratio = 4.2). While preliminary, these findings suggest the importance of sex in relation to psychophysiological and temperamental reactivity, risk factors for developmental psychopathology. As our participants age, follow-up research to investigate the stability of these associations will provide valuable insights for the potential of EDA as a psychophysiological marker for developmental psychopathology risk in young children.

A cascade from disregard for rules of conduct at preschool age to parental power assertion at early school age to antisocial behavior in early preadolescence: Interplay with the child's skin conductance level

Young children's disregard for conduct rules (failing to experience discomfort following transgressions and violating adults' prohibitions) often foreshadows future antisocial trajectories, perhaps in part because it elicits more power-assertive parental discipline, which in turn promotes children's antisocial behavior. This process may be particularly likely for children with low skin conductance level (SCL). In 102 two-parent community families, we tested a model in which children's SCL, assessed at 8 years, was posed as a moderator of the cascade from children's disregard for conduct rules at 4.5 years to parents' power assertion at 5.5 and 6.5 years to antisocial behavior at 10 and 12 years. Children's disregard for conduct rules was observed in scripted laboratory paradigms, parents' power assertion was observed in discipline contexts, and children's antisocial behavior was rated by parents. Conditional process analyses revealed that the developmental cascade from early disregard for rules to future parental power assertion to antisocial outcomes occurred only for the children with low SCL (below median), but not their high-SCL (above median) peers. By elucidating the specific interplay among children's disregard for rules, the parenting they receive, and their psychophysiology, this study represents a developmentally informed, multilevel approach to early etiology of antisocial behavior.

Do post-trauma symptoms mediate the relation between neurobiological stress parameters and conduct problems in girls?

OBJECTIVE

Attenuated activity of stress-regulating systems has consistently been reported in boys with conduct problems. Results in studies of girls are inconsistent, which may result from the high prevalence of comorbid post-trauma symptoms. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to investigate post-trauma symptoms as a potential mediator in the relation between stress-regulation systems functioning and conduct problems in female adolescents.

METHODS

The sample consisted of 78 female adolescents (mean age 15.4; SD 1.1) admitted to a closed treatment institution. The diagnosis of disruptive behaviour disorder (DBD) was assessed by a structured interview-the diagnostic interview schedule for children version IV (DISC-IV). To assess post-trauma symptoms and externalizing behaviour problems, self-report questionnaires, youth self report (YSR) and the trauma symptom checklist for Children (TSCC) were used. The cortisol awakenings response (CAR) measured hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity, whereas autonomous nervous system (ANS) activity was assessed by heart rate (HR), pre-ejection period (PEP) and respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA). Independent t-tests were used to compare girls with and without DBD, while path analyses tested for the mediating role of post- trauma symptoms in the relation between stress regulating systems and externalizing behaviour.

RESULTS

Females with DBD (n = 37) reported significantly higher rates of post-trauma symptoms and externalizing behaviour problems than girls without DBD (n = 39). Path analysis found no relation between CAR and externalizing behaviour problems. With regard to ANS activity, positive direct effects on externalizing behaviour problems were present for HR (standardized β = 0.306, p = 0.020) and PEP (standardized β = -0.323, p = 0.031), though not for RSA. Furthermore, no relation-whether direct or indirect-could be determined from post-trauma symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

Present findings demonstrate that the neurobiological characteristics of female externalizing behaviour differ from males, since girls showed heightened instead of attenuated ANS activity. While the prevalence of post-trauma symptoms was high in girls with DBD, it did not mediate the relation between stress parameters and externalizing behaviour. Clinical implications and future directions are discussed.

Physiological response to reward and extinction predicts alcohol, marijuana, and cigarette use two years later

BACKGROUND

Physiological responses to reward and extinction are believed to represent the behavioral activation system (BAS) and behavioral inhibition system (BIS) constructs of Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory and underlie externalizing behaviors, including substance use. However, little research has examined these relations directly.

METHODS

We assessed individuals' cardiac pre-ejection periods (PEP) and electrodermal responses (EDR) during reward and extinction trials through the "number elimination game" paradigm. Responses represented BAS and BIS, respectively. We then examined whether these responses provided incremental utility in the prediction of future alcohol, marijuana, and cigarette use.

RESULTS

Zero-inflated Poisson (ZIP) regression models were used to examine the predictive utility of physiological BAS and BIS responses above and beyond previous substance use. Physiological responses accounted for incremental variance over previous use. Low BAS responses during reward predicted frequency of alcohol use at year 3. Low BAS responses during reward and extinction and high BIS responses during extinction predicted frequency of marijuana use at year 3. For cigarette use, low BAS response during extinction predicted use at year 3.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that the constructs of Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory, as assessed through physiology, contribute to the longitudinal maintenance of substance use.

Intersections between cardiac physiology, emotion regulation and interpersonal warmth in preschoolers: Implications for drug abuse prevention from translational neuroscience

BACKGROUND

Early childhood is characterized by dramatic gains in emotion regulation skills that support social adjustment and mental health. Understanding the physiological substrates of healthy emotion regulation may offer new directions for altering trajectories toward initiation and escalation of substance abuse. Here, we describe the intersections between parasympathetic and sympathetic tone, emotion regulation and prosocial behavior in a high-risk sample of preschoolers.

METHOD

Fifty-two 3-6 year old children completed an assessment of attention regulation in response to affective stimuli. Cardiac respiratory sinus arrhythmia, an index of parasympathetic tone, and pre-ejection period, a marker of sympathetic activation, were recorded at rest and while children engaged in social interactions with their mothers and an unfamiliar research assistant. Mothers reported on children's emotional reactivity and prosocial behavior.

RESULTS

Controlling for age and psychosocial risk, higher parasympathetic tone predicted better attention regulation in response to angry emotion and higher levels of prosocial behavior, whereas a reciprocal pattern of higher parasympathetic tone and lower sympathetic arousal predicted better attention in response to positive emotion and lower emotional reactivity. Children exposed to fewer risk factors and higher levels of maternal warmth were more able to sustain a high level of parasympathetic tone during interaction episodes.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that autonomic measures represent biomarkers for socio-emotional competence in young children. They also point to the importance of early experiences in the establishment of physiological regulation and the promise of family-based intervention to promote healthy emotion regulation and prevent substance dependence in high-risk populations.

Patterns of Sensitivity to Emotion in Children with Williams Syndrome and Autism: Relations Between Autonomic Nervous System Reactivity and Social Functioning

Williams syndrome (WS) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are associated with atypical social-emotional functioning. Affective visual stimuli were used to assess autonomic reactivity and emotion identification, and the social responsiveness scale was used to determine the level social functioning in children with WS and ASD contrasted with typical development (TD), to examine syndrome-specific and syndrome-general features. Children with ASD exhibited the highest arousal in response to faces, with a lack of difference in autonomic sensitivity across different emotional expressions, unlike in WS and TD. The WS group demonstrated unique deficits in identifying neutral stimuli. While autonomic responsivity to neutral faces was associated with social functioning in all children, converging profiles characterized children with WS contrasted with TD and ASD.

Sympathetic arousal of young children who stutter during a stressful picture naming task

PURPOSE

The purpose of the current study was to investigate sympathetic arousal of young children who do and do not stutter during a stressful picture-naming task under instructions to name pictures as rapidly as possible.

METHOD

Thirty-seven young children who stutter (CWS) and 39 young children who do not stutter (CWNS) served as participants. Dependent measures consisted of tonic skin conductance during a pretask baseline, a stress-inducing rapid picture-naming task, and post-picture-naming task condition.

RESULTS

Findings indicated that, when chronological age was not taken into account, there was no between-group difference in tonic skin conductance level. When age was taken into account, however, there was a significant talker group×age group interaction, with follow-up analyses indicating that 3-year-old CWS exhibited significantly higher sympathetic arousal than their CWNS peers, and their 4-year-old CWNS peers.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings were taken to be consistent with non-physiological results indicating an association between emotional processes and childhood stuttering. This association, at least for this cross-sectional study of tonic skin conductance level (SCL) during a picture-naming task, was moderated by children's chronological age. Such developmental differences may be associated with various processes, for example, attention, cognition, or physiology, or some combination of two or more of these processes. Future empirical study of these processes in young CWS and CWNS may profit from longitudinal measurement of converging lines of evidence from behavioral, parent and psychophysiological indexes of emotional reactivity and regulation.

EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

After reading this article, the reader will be able to: (a) discuss salient findings in the literature regarding the association between emotional processes and childhood stuttering; (b) discuss sympathetic arousal, and how skin conductance is used to measure it; and (c) discuss the role of chronological age in the association between emotion and stuttering in young children.

Physiological Arousal and Its Dysregulation in Child Maladjustment

Arousal and its regulation are key components of emotion, temperament, and flexible responding needed for healthy adjustment. This article presents a biosocial vulnerability model suggesting that maladjustment arises when psychological mechanisms are disrupted by changes in nervous system functioning that cause the discoordination of physiological regulatory systems, potentially leading to hyper- or hypoarousal and arousal dysregulation. The model posits bidirectional relationships with adverse social context at any level, ultimately derailing affective, cognitive, and interpersonal processes, which can increase psychopathology. Applications are made to childhood aggression and autism spectrum disorder as two examples of how differences in arousal and its dysregulation can impact child adjustment.

Childhood anxiety and psychophysiological reactivity: hypnosis to build discrimination and self-regulation skills

Clinically anxious, worried, and fearful children and teens need clinicians' assistance in reducing their exaggerated psychophysiological stress reactivity. Affective neuroscience finds that chronic activation of the body's emergency response system inhibits neurogenesis, disrupts neuronal plasticity, and is detrimental to physical and mental health. Patterns of faulty discrimination skills, for example, over-estimation of threat and danger and under-estimation of their coping capacity, fuel this over-arousal. Similarly, contributory patterns of reduced self-regulation skills are shown by "stuck" attention to and poor control of their exaggerated psychophysiological reactivity and somatization. This article considers the literature and focuses on cognitive hypnotherapy to enhance these under-developed capacities. A case illustration highlights various hypnotic phenomena and techniques, psychoeducation, and relaxation training that address the goals of interrupting these unproductive, interconnected patterns and fostering new patterns of more realistic and accurate discrimination capacities and sturdier psychophysiological self-regulation skills.

Development of fear and guilt in young children: stability over time and relations with psychopathology

Extremes in fearful temperament have long been associated with later psychopathology and risk pathways. Whereas fearful children are inhibited and anxious and avoid novel events, fearless individuals are disinhibited and more likely to engage in aggressive behavior. However, very few studies have examined fear in infants from a multimethod and prospective longitudinal perspective. This study had the following objectives: to examine behavioral, maternal reported, and physiological indices of fearful temperament in infancy, together with their relations and stability over time; and to establish whether early indices of fear predict fear later in toddlerhood. We also examined the association between behavioral and physiological measures of fear and guilt and whether fear in infancy predicts guilt in toddlers. Finally, we investigated infant risk factors for later psychopathology. We recorded skin conductance level (SCL) and heart rate (HR) and observed children's responses during a Laboratory Temperament Assessment Battery fear paradigm across the first 3 years of life and during a guilt induction procedure at age 3 (N = 70). The results indicate that different measures of infant fear were associated across time. Observed fearlessness in infancy predicted observed fearlessness and low levels of SCL arousal to fear and guilt in toddlers. Low levels of HR and SCL to fear in infancy predicted low levels of physiological arousal to the same situation and to guilt 2 years later. Fear and guilt were significantly associated across measures. Finally, toddlers with clinically significant internalizing problems at age 3 were already notably more fearful in Year 1 as reflected by their significantly higher HR levels. The results indicated that assessments of children in infancy are predictive of how these children react 2 years later and therefore lend support to the idea that the emotional thermostat is set in the first 3 years of life. They also showed, for the first time, that infant fear is a predictor of guilt, which is an emotion that develops later. The implications of these findings for our understanding of developmental psychopathology are discussed.

A developmental increase in allostatic load from ages 3 to 11 years is associated with increased schizotypal personality at age 23 years

Although allostatic load has been investigated in mood and anxiety disorders, no prior study has investigated developmental change in allostatic load as a precursor to schizotypal personality. This study employed a multilevel developmental framework to examine whether the development of increased allostatic load, as indicated by impaired sympathetic nervous system habituation from ages 3 to 11 years, predisposes to schizotypal personality at age 23 years. Electrodermal activity to six aversive tones was recorded in 995 subjects at age 3 years and again at 11 years. Habituation slopes at both ages were used to create groups who showed a developmental increase in habituation (decreased allostatic load), and those who showed a developmental decrease in habituation (increased allostatic load). Children who showed a developmental increase in allostatic load from ages 3 to 11 years had higher levels of schizotypal personality at 23 years. A breakdown of total schizotypy scores demonstrated specificity of findings to cognitive-perceptual features of schizotypy. Findings are the first to document a developmental abnormality in allostasis in relation to adult schizotypal personality. The relative failure to develop normal habituation to repeated stressors throughout childhood is hypothesized to result in an accumulation of allostatic load and consequently increased positive symptom schizotypy in adulthood.

The heritability of the skin conductance orienting response: a longitudinal twin study

The orienting response is a widely used experimental paradigm that reflects the association between electrodermal activity and psychological processes. The present study examined the genetic and environmental etiology of skin conductance orienting response (SCOR) magnitude in a sample of twins assessed at ages 9-10, 11-13 and 14-16 years. Structural equation modeling at each visit showed that genetic influences explained 56%, 83%, and 48% of the total variance in SCOR at visits 1, 2, and 3, respectively, with the remaining variance explained by non-shared environmental factors. SCOR was moderately stable across ages, with phenotypic correlations between time points ranging from .35 to .45. A common genetic factor explained 36%, 45% and 49% of the variance in SCOR magnitude across development. Additional age-specific genetic effects were found at ages 9-10 and 11-13 years, explaining 18% and 35% of the variance, respectively. The genetic correlations among the three time points were high, ranging from .55 to .73, indicating a substantial continuity in genetic influences from ages 9 to 16. These findings suggest that genetic factors are important influences in SCOR magnitude during late childhood and adolescence.

Direct and moderating links of salivary alpha-amylase and cortisol stress-reactivity to youth behavioral and emotional adjustment

Recent studies have revealed evidence for interactions between autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity, indexed by saliva alpha amylase (sAA), and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical activity, in predicting psychological functioning. The present study extends this work by examining individual differences in sAA and cortisol stress reactivity in relation to behavioral and emotional adjustment in youth. Participants were 56 healthy children (age 7-16). sAA, cortisol, and other physiological and affective responses were measured before, during, and after stressor tasks (either performance or peer rejection). Basal and stress responsive sAA and cortisol as well as their interactions were assessed in relation to externalizing and internalizing behaviors and trait anxiety. sAA was positively related to anxiety, while sAA reactivity moderated associations between cortisol reactivity and problem behavior. Results highlight the importance of measuring multiple physiological systems to elucidate mechanisms underlying behavioral and emotional dysregulation.

Latent change score modeling of psychophysiological data: an empirical instantiation using electrodermal responding

We examined latent change score (LCS) modeling as an approach to the analysis of children's skin conductance level (SCL) throughout a stressful task-a simulated interadult argument-as it relates to externalizing and internalizing symptoms. LCS is an extension of traditional multilevel modeling (MLM), which allows estimation of proportional growth terms. Children (age 6-12 years; N=150) were from two-parent families. Mothers reported on children's internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Results indicated that the LCS models outperformed the traditional MLM. The use of LCS yielded important novel information regarding profile and pattern of responding for various children and is likely to advance understanding of relations between children's physiological responses and psychopathology symptoms.

The link between sensation seeking and aggression: a meta-analytic review

Substantial empirical evidence supports low resting heart rate (HR) as the best replicated psychophysiological correlate of aggression [Ortiz and Raine, 2004]; however, researchers continue to debate the explanatory mechanisms of the phenomenon. Sensation seeking has been proposed as a possible outcome of low resting HR that may lead to aggressive tendencies but findings have been inconsistent in terms of showing a relationship between sensation seeking and aggression. A meta-analysis was conducted on 43 independent effect sizes, from studies with a total of 32,217 participants, to test the hypothesis that sensation seeking would be positively related to aggression across studies. A significant overall effect size was found (d = .1935, P<.001), supporting the hypothesis. Moderator analyses revealed that the relationship differed based on participant and methodological characteristics, such as participant age and the nature of the aggression measurement; however, these conclusions are limited by the uneven number of studies in many of the moderator classes. Overall, the findings provide support for higher levels of aggression in high sensation seekers and have theoretical implications for arousal theory. Further research on the links between arousal, sensation seeking and aggression can inform clinicians about potential interventions.

Temperament and Maternal Emotion Socialization Beliefs as Predictors of Early Childhood Social Behavior in the Laboratory and Classroom

OBJECTIVE

We examined the roles of children's approach behavior and maternal emotion socialization practices in the development of social behavior in unfamiliar and familiar contexts from preschool to early childhood years.

DESIGN

At 4.5 years of age, children were observed, and an assessment of approach behavior was obtained; at this time, mothers reported about their emotion socialization beliefs. Two years later, children returned to the laboratory to participate in a peer play paradigm. When children were 7 years of age, teachers completed a questionnaire about children's social behaviors in the classroom.

RESULTS

Mothers' emotion socialization beliefs contribute to the developmental outcomes of approach behavior. For instance, observations of approach behaviors predicted a greater proportion of group play in the unfamiliar peer group when mothers reported highly supportive emotion socialization beliefs.

CONCLUSION

Mothers' emotion socialization beliefs appear to play an important role in modifying the developmental course of approach behavior during early childhood.

Mediation of sensation seeking and behavioral inhibition on the relationship between heart rate and antisocial behavior: the TRAILS study

OBJECTIVE

Why is low resting heart rate (HR) associated with antisocial behavior (ASB), i.e., aggression and rule breaking, in adolescence? Theory suggests that personality traits mediate this relationship but differently with age. In the present study this age-effect hypothesis is tested; we expected that the relationship between HR and aggression would be mediated in preadolescence by the personality trait behavioral inhibition, but not by sensation seeking. However, the relationship between HR and rule breaking in adolescence was predicted to be mediated by sensation seeking, but not by behavioral inhibition. Hypotheses were tested separately for boys and girls.

METHOD

HR in supine position was assessed in repondents to the TRacking Adolescents' Individual Lives Survey (TRAILS) (N = 1,752; 48.5% boys) at age 11 years. Rule breaking and aggression at age 16 were assessed with two subscales from the Youth Self Report (YSR) questionnaire. Personality (i.e., sensation seeking and behavioral inhibition) was measured at ages 11, 13.5, and 16 with the Early Adolescent Temperament Questionnaire-Revised (EATQ-R), Behavioral Inhibition System/ Behavioral Activation System (BIS/BAS) scales, or NEO Personality-Index Revised (NEO-PI-R).

RESULTS

In boys, lower HR was associated with aggression and rule breaking in adolescence. The association between HR and rule breaking was mediated by sensation seeking in adolescence but not in preadolescence. Girls' HR was not associated with ASB, and no mediating effects were found.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings support the age-effect hypothesis in boys' rule breaking behavior. This shows that the association between HR and ASB depends on age, gender, and subtype of ASB.

Stable behavioral inhibition and glucocorticoid production as predictors of longevity

Several personality/temperament traits have been linked to health outcomes in humans and animals but underlying physiological mechanisms for these differential outcomes are minimally understood. In this paper, we compared the strength of a behavioral trait (behavioral inhibition) and an associated physiological trait (glucocorticoid production) in predicting life span. In addition, we examined the relative stability of both the behavioral and physiological traits within individuals over a significant portion of adulthood, and tested the hypothesis that a stable behavioral trait is linked with a stable physiological bias. In a sample of 60 Sprague-Dawley male rats, we found that stable inhibition/neophobia was a stronger predictor of life span than stably elevated glucocorticoid production. In addition, these predictors appeared to have an additive influence on life span in that males with both risk factors (stable inhibition and consistently high glucocorticoid production) had the shortest life spans of all, suggesting both traits are important predictors of life span. Across a 4-month period in young adulthood, inhibition and glucocorticoid reactivity were relatively stable traits, however these two traits were not highly correlated with one another. Interestingly, baseline glucocorticoid production was a better predictor of life span than reactivity levels. The results indicate that glucocorticoid production in young adulthood is an important predictor of life span, although not as strong a predictor as inhibition, and that other physiological processes may further explain the shortened life span in behaviorally-inhibited individuals.

Maternal psychopathology influences infant heart rate variability: Generation R Study

OBJECTIVE

To assess the determinants of heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) in children. The autonomic nervous system as measured by HR and HRV is considered a biological marker of psychopathology in children.

METHODS

We examined the relationship of maternal psychopathology with infant HR and HRV. HR was recorded at 14 months in 528 infants. The high-frequency component of HRV was used as an indicator of cardiac vagal modulation. The presence of a lifetime maternal psychiatric diagnosis was assessed with the Composite International Diagnostic Interview. Presence of maternal psychiatric symptoms during pregnancy and 2 months after birth was assessed, using the Brief Symptom Inventory.

RESULTS

A maternal history of a psychiatric disorder was associated with a 0.24-standard deviation (SD) higher mean HR in the infant (beta = 0.24, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) = 0.03, 0.4, p = .025) and a 0.14-SD lower high-frequency power (beta = -0.14, 95% CI = -0.6, -0.03, p = .003). Likewise, postnatal maternal anxiety and depression symptoms were associated with infant mean HR. A 1-point increase in the mean anxiety symptom score was associated with 0.14-SD higher mean HR in the infant (beta = 0.14, 95% CI = 0.05, 0.2, p = .004), and a 1-point increase in mean depression score with a 0.11-SD increase (beta = 0.11, 95% CI = 0.01, 0.2, p = .025). No significant associations of prenatal maternal affective symptoms with infants autonomic functioning were found.

CONCLUSION

Maternal lifetime psychiatric diagnosis and postnatal psychiatric symptoms are associated with infant autonomic functioning, namely, higher mean HR and lower vagal modulation.

Sex differences in autonomic correlates of conduct problems and aggression

OBJECTIVE

To examine sex differences in autonomic nervous system functioning in children and adolescents with conduct problems and to evaluate the role of aggression in predicting autonomic nervous system functioning, over and above the effects of disruptive behavior. Although deficiencies in autonomic responding among boys with oppositional defiant disorder and/or conduct disorder are well documented, it remains unclear whether such findings extend to girls or apply only to children with aggressive forms of conduct problems.

METHOD

Electrodermal responding, cardiac pre-ejection period, and respiratory sinus arrhythmia were recorded while boys (n = 110; 53 with conduct problems, 57 controls) and girls (n = 65; 33 with conduct problems, 32 controls) between the ages of 8 and 12 sat for an extended baseline, then played a game with conditions of reward and frustrative nonreward.

RESULTS

Both sex effects and aggression effects were found. Aggressive boys with conduct problems demonstrated reduced autonomic functioning, consistent with previous research. In contrast, aggressive girls with conduct problems exhibited greater electrodermal responding than controls, with no differences in cardiovascular reactivity to incentives.

CONCLUSIONS

Observed sex differences in the autonomic correlates of conduct problems and aggression may suggest different etiological mechanisms of externalizing psychopathology for girls compared with boys.

Low heart rate: a marker of stress resilience. The TRAILS study

BACKGROUND

The stimulation-seeking theory posits that individuals with low habitual autonomic arousal levels will seek stimulation to increase their arousal to more optimal levels. Because of their assumed high optimal stimulation levels, persons characterized by low autonomic arousal may be better able to endure stressors than those with higher levels. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that low resting heart rate (HR) and high respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) protect against the detrimental effects of stressors on mental health in early adolescents from the general population.

METHODS

Data were collected as part of TRacking Adolescents' Individual Lives Survey (TRAILS), a large prospective cohort of Dutch (pre)adolescents (N = 1478), with measurements at approximately age 11 (T1) and age 13.5 (T2). Internalizing and externalizing mental health problems were assessed at both waves, using multiple informants. Resting HR and RSA were assessed at T1 and the amount of parent-reported stressors and long-term difficulties at T2.

RESULTS

Stressors predicted mental health problems in adolescents with intermediate and high HR, but not in those with low HR. These findings were consistent regardless of the measure used to assess stressors and of adjustment for T1 mental health problems. Furthermore, the stress-buffering effects of low HR pertained to both externalizing problems and internalizing problems. No stress-buffering effects were found for RSA, suggesting predominantly sympathetic influences.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study, which linked physiologic measures to stress sensitivity in real life, suggests that low HR is a marker of resilience to the effects of environmental challenges in early adolescence.

Respiratory sinus arrhythmia and tympanic membrane compliance predict spontaneous eye gaze behaviors in young children: a pilot study

The Polyvagal theory proposes the Social Engagement System as a theoretical model linking social behavior with the neural regulation of the heart (via the vagus) and the striated muscles of the face and head (via special visceral efferent pathways). The current pilot study tested the feasibility of this model with typically developing 3-5-year-old children by evaluating the relation between spontaneous social engagement behavior measured by eye gaze behaviors and the visceromotor (e.g., respiratory sinus arrhythmia) and somatomotor (e.g., right tympanic membrane compliance) components of the Social Engagement System. Regression analyses supported the hypothesis that the visceromotor and somatomotor components of the Social Engagement System significantly predict social behavior (indexed by spontaneous eye gazes). Future studies assessing indices of visceral regulation and middle ear muscle function may provide insights into neural mechanisms mediating features of developmental disorders, such as autism, that have deficits in spontaneous eye gaze, auditory processing, and social behavior.

Physiological correlates of anxiety in children with gender identity disorder

BACKGROUND

Internalizing psychopathology, anxiety in particular, is assumed to contribute to the development of gender Identity disorder (GID). Until now, anxiety has only been reported in studies using parent-report questionnaires; physiological correlates of anxiety have not been studied. In this study we assessed anxiety and stress in children with GID by measuring their cortisol, heart rate (HR) and skin conductance levels (SCL) and asking them to repeat their moods and experience of control.

METHODS

By using an established psychological challenge, involving provocation and frustration, we investigated whether children with GID as compared to healthy controls react in a more anxious way under these experimental circumstances. We assessed anxiety levels in 25 children with GID and 25 matched controls by measuring cortisol, HR and skin conductance and examined whether a pattern of increased physiological activity corresponded with the feeling of being less in control and having more intense negative emotions.

RESULTS

The results showed that children with GID had more negative emotions and a tonically elevated SCL. There were no differences between the groups in cortisol and HR.

CONCLUSION

This is the first study that shows that children with GID have a more anxious nature as compared to their normal counterparts.

Children's skin conductance level and reactivity: are these measures stable over time and across tasks?

The stability of children's skin conductance level during baselines (SCL-B) and SCL reactivity (SCL-R) were examined longitudinally. During two laboratory sessions (T1 and T2), 2 years apart, children participated in procedures during which they were exposed to two stressors namely exposure to an audiotaped conflict between two adults, and a problem solving task. Children ranged in age between 6 and 13 years at T1. Measures of SCL-B and SCL-R during the two stressors were obtained. Findings illustrated the temporal stability of SCL-B and SCL-R to the star-tracing task over 2 years. Results also indicated stability in SCL-R to the two stressors (argument and problem-solving) examined within the same session at either T1 or T2. These results support the proposition that SCL-B and SCL-R constitute stable individual differences at the ages examined, and build on the scant longitudinal literature on psychophysiological development in children.

Externalizing and internalizing problems in relation to autonomic function: a population-based study in preadolescents

OBJECTIVE

To investigate whether externalizing and internalizing problems are related to lower and higher heart rate (HR), respectively, and to explore the relationship of these problems with respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) and baroreflex sensitivity (BRS). Moreover, to study whether problems present at both preschool and preadolescent age show stronger associations with autonomic function than those that were not.

METHOD

In a population cohort of 10- to 13-year-old children (N = 931; 11.6 +/- 0.5 years; 47% boys), autonomic measurements in supine and standing position were performed at school. RSA and BRS were determined by spectral analysis. Current externalizing and internalizing problems were assessed by the Child Behavior Checklist and problems at age 4 to 5 retrospectively by the Preschool Behavior Questionnaire.

RESULTS

At supine rest, current externalizing problems were associated with lower HR and higher RSA, but not with BRS and current internalizing problems with higher HR and lower RSA, but not with BRS. These results were specifically found in children with problems that were retrospectively reported to have been also present at preschool age. Standing-induced changes in autonomic parameters were unrelated to the behavioral dimensions.

CONCLUSIONS

Externalizing and internalizing problems are associated with divergent autonomic patterns, suggesting autonomic underarousal and overarousal, respectively. Problems starting early in life may specifically account for this. This should be confirmed in prospective studies.

Physiological reactions of preschoolers to fear-inducing film clips: Effects of temperamental fearfulness and quality of the parent–child relationship

This study investigates young children's fright reactions induced by television. The central question concerns the degree to which the impact can be predicted by temperamental fearfulness and the quality of the parent-child relationship. Using a procedure for recording simultaneously skin conductance (SCL) and heart rate variability (RMSSD), 78 3- and 4-year-olds were shown two brief TV film episodes (one fear-inducing and one emotionally neutral). The children responded to fear-inducing film stimuli with an increase in SCL-reactivity and a decrease in RMSSD-reactivity. Furthermore, temperamentally more fearful children showed most electrodermal reactivity when their relationship with the parent was less harmonious. More fearful children were more susceptible to the quality of the relationship with their parent, which provides support for the differential susceptibility hypothesis.

Behavioral Inhibition: Linking Biology and Behavior within a Developmental Framework

Behavioral inhibition refers to a temperament or style of reacting that some infants and young children exhibit when confronted with novel situations or unfamiliar adults or peers. Research on behavioral inhibition has examined the link between this set of behaviors to the neural systems involved in the experience and expression of fear. There are strong parallels between the physiology of behaviorally inhibited children and the activation of physiological systems associated with conditioned and unconditioned fear. Research has examined which caregiving behaviors support the frequency of behavioral inhibition across development, and work on the interface of cognitive processes and behavioral inhibition reveal both how certain cognitive processes moderate behavioral inhibition and how this temperament affects the development of cognition. This research has taken place within a context of the possibility that stable behavioral inhibition may be a risk factor for psychopathology, particularly anxiety disorders in older children. The current chapter reviews these areas of research and provides an integrative account of the broad impact of behavioral inhibition research.

The psychophysiology of child misconduct

Psychophysiological evidence supports the notion that serious and persistent childhood misconduct is symptomatic of an internal dysfunction that dynamically interacts with other psychological and social causes. Childhood misconduct is a complex phenomenon with multiple causes and no easy solutions. Rather than think our civilization is doomed, however, we should realize that the great majority of our children grow up to be sociable and law-abiding individuals. For the others, we are afforded optimism that this problem can be minimized as we gain a more complete understanding of the interplay among biological, psychological, and social risks, and through the consequent refinement of interventions.

Biosocial studies of antisocial and violent behavior in children and adults: a review

Despite increasing knowledge of social and biological risk factors for antisocial and violent behavior, we know surprisingly little about how these two sets of risk factors interact. This paper documents 39 empirical examples of biosocial interaction effects for antisocial behavior from the areas of genetics, psychophysiology, obstetrics, brain imaging, neuropsychology, neurology, hormones, neurotransmitters, and environmental toxins. Two main themes emerge. First, when biological and social factors are grouping variables and when antisocial behavior is the outcome, then the presence of both risk factors exponentially increases the rates of antisocial and violent behavior. Second, when social and antisocial variables are grouping variables and biological functioning is the outcome, then the social variable invariably moderates the antisocial-biology relationship such that these relationships are strongest in those from benign home backgrounds. It is argued that further biosocial research is critical for establishing a new generation of more successful intervention and prevention research.

Annotation: the role of prefrontal deficits, low autonomic arousal, and early health factors in the development of antisocial and aggressive behavior in children

BACKGROUND

This article selectively reviews the biological bases of antisocial and aggressive behavior in children with a focus on low autonomic functioning, prefrontal deficits, and early health factors.

RESULTS

Low resting heart rate is thought to be the best-replicated biological correlate of antisocial and aggressive behavior in child and adolescent populations and may reflect reduced noradrenergic functioning and a fearless, stimulation-seeking temperament. Evidence from neuropsychological, neurological, and brain imaging studies converges on the conclusion that prefrontal structural and functional deficits are related to antisocial, aggressive behavior throughout the lifespan. A prefrontal dysfunction theory of antisocial behavior is advanced. This argues that social and executive function demands of late adolescence overload the late developing prefrontal cortex, giving rise to prefrontal dysfunction and a lack of inhibitory control over antisocial, violent behavior that peaks at this age. Birth complications and minor physical anomalies are selectively associated with later violent behavior, especially when combined with adverse psychosocial risk factors for violence. Cigarette smoking during pregnancy may increase the risk for antisocial and violent behavior in later life by disrupting noradrenergic functioning and enhancement of cholinergic receptors that inhibit cardiac functioning. Malnutrition during pregnancy is associated with later antisocial behavior and may be mediated by protein deficiency.

CONCLUSIONS

It is argued that early health intervention and prevention studies may provide the most effective way of reversing biological deficits that predispose to antisocial and aggressive behavior in children and adults.

Electrodermal and cardiovascular manifestations of emotions in children

The purpose of this paper is to analyze the current state of developmental researches in the area of psychophysiology of emotions in preschool and elementary school children. Electrodermal and cardiovascular activity measures are considered as the sources of indices of the autonomic nervous system activation during emotion-eliciting stimulation in children. We discuss the question of sensitivity of phasic and tonic autonomic measures for the identification of occurrence of emotion, mapping it along with valence and arousal dimensions in affective space, and to further differentiate emotions by their physiological manifestations. Considered are the conceptual and methodological issues related to psychophysiological measurements and developmental factors affecting the emotional reactivity in children. Special attention is devoted to the developmental aspects of psychophysiological studies on emotion such as the maturation of organs, integration of the autonomic and central nervous systems, age and gender-related changes in autonomic reactivity, and development of inhibitory control. Summarized are main findings relevant to psychophysiology of emotions in preschool and early school-age children and suggested are most perspective directions of their integration in the framework of modern theories of emotion.

Social inhibition and overfriendliness as related to socioemotional functioning in 7- and 8-year-old children

Examined high, medium, and low social inhibition groups in a Swedish sample (N = 815) of 7- and 8-year-old children on the basis of parental reports about their children's reaction to novel social situations. High social inhibition was associated with increased levels of internalizing problems and low social competence. Among the low-inhibited children, we identified a subgroup by using an index of overfriendliness. Overfriendliness was associated with more internalizing, externalizing, and attention problems and lower prosocial orientation. The findings support the notion of high social inhibition as a risk factor for the development of internalizing problems and low social competence but question the view of low inhibition as descriptive of generally well-functioning children. Rather, this is true for low-inhibited children only when they are also low in overfriendliness. Thus, the results point to a need for a better understanding of developmental pathways for both high- and low-inhibited children.

Low resting heart rate at age 3 years predisposes to aggression at age 11 years: evidence from the Mauritius Child Health Project

OBJECTIVE

Previous studies indicate that low resting heart rate is probably the best-replicated biological correlate of childhood antisocial and aggressive behavior. Nevertheless, there have been few longitudinal tests of this relationship, little control over potential confounds and mediators, and no test of its cross-cultural generalizability. This study tests the hypothesis that low resting heart rate at age 3 years predicts aggression at age 11 years.

METHOD

Resting heart rate at age 3 years was assessed in 1,795 male and female children from Mauritius. Aggressive and nonaggressive forms of antisocial behavior were assessed at age 11 years using the Child Behavior Checklist.

RESULTS

Aggressive children had lower heart rates than nonaggressive children (p < .001). Conversely, those with low heart rates were more aggressive than those with high heart rates (p < .003). There were no interactions with gender or ethnicity. Evidence was found for specificity of low heart rate to aggressive forms of antisocial behavior. Group differences in heart rate were not attributable to 11 biological, psychological, and psychiatric mediators and confounds.

CONCLUSIONS

It is concluded that low resting heart rate, a partly heritable trait reflecting fearlessness and stimulation-seeking, is an important, diagnostically specific, well-replicated, early biological marker for later aggressive behavior.