The presence of the reverse distance effect depends on the familiarity of the sequences being processed

Number order processing is thought to be characterised by a reverse distance effect whereby consecutive sequences (e.g., 1-2-3) are processed faster than non-consecutive sequences (e.g., 1-3-5). However, there is accumulating evidence that the reverse distance effect is not consistently observed. In this context, the present study investigated whether the presence of the reverse distance effect depends on the familiarity of the sequences being processed. Supporting this proposal, Experiment 1 found that the reverse distance effect was only present when the presented consecutive sequences were considerably more familiar than the presented non-consecutive sequences. Additionally, the sequence 1-2-3 has been suggested to play a pivotal role in the presence of the reverse distance effect due to being both the most familiar and fastest processed sequence. However, it is contested whether 1-2-3 is processed fast because it is familiar or simply because it can typically be verified as ordered from only its first two digits. Supporting the familiarity explanation, Experiments 2 and 3 found that 1-2-3 was processed characteristically fast regardless of whether it could be verified from its first two digits. Taken together, these findings suggest that sequence familiarity plays a critical role in the presence or absence of the reverse distance effect.

The role of spatial processing in verbal serial order working memory

In a sequence, at least two aspects of information-the identity of items and their serial order-are maintained and supported by distinct working memory (WM) capacities. Verbal serial order WM is modulated by spatial processing, reflected in the Spatial Position Association of Response Codes (SPoARC) effect-the left-beginning, right-end positional association between space and serial position of verbal WM memoranda. We investigated the individual differences in this modulation with both behavioral and neurobiological approaches. We administered a battery of seven behavioral tasks with 160 healthy adults and collected resting-state fMRI data from a subset of 25 participants. With a multilevel mixed-effects modeling approach, we found that the SPoARC effect's magnitude predicts individual differences in verbal serial order WM capacity and is related to spatial item WM capacity. With a graph-theory-based analytic approach, this interaction between verbal serial order WM and spatial WM was corroborated in that the level of interaction between corresponding cortical regions (indexed by modularity) was predictive of the magnitude of the SPoARC effect. Additionally, the modularity of cortical regions associated with verbal serial order WM and spatial attention predicted the SPoARC effect's magnitude, indicating the involvement of spatial attention in this modulation. Together, our findings highlight multiple sources of the interplay between verbal serial order WM and spatial processing.

Basic Symbolic Number Skills, but Not Formal Mathematics Performance, Longitudinally Predict Mathematics Anxiety in the First Years of Primary School

Mathematical anxiety (MA) and mathematics performance typically correlate negatively in studies of adolescents and adults, but not always amongst young children, with some theorists questioning the relevance of MA to mathematics performance in this age group. Evidence is also limited in relation to the developmental origins of MA and whether MA in young children can be linked to their earlier mathematics performance. To address these questions, the current study investigated whether basic and formal mathematics skills around 4 and 5 years of age were predictive of MA around the age of 7-8. Additionally, we also examined the cross-sectional relationships between MA and mathematics performance in 7-8-year-old children. Specifically, children in our study were assessed in their first (T1; aged 4-5), second (T2; aged 5-6), and fourth years of school (T3; aged 7-8). At T1 and T2, children completed measures of basic numerical skills, IQ, and working memory, as well as curriculum-based mathematics tests. At T3, children completed two self-reported MA questionnaires, together with a curriculum-based mathematics test. The results showed that MA could be reliably measured in a sample of 7-8-year-olds and demonstrated the typical negative correlation between MA and mathematical performance (although the strength of this relationship was dependent on the specific content domain). Importantly, although early formal mathematical skills were unrelated to later MA, there was evidence of a longitudinal relationship between basic early symbolic number skills and later MA, supporting the idea that poorer basic numerical skills relate to the development of MA.

Do developmental dyslexia and congenital amusia share underlying impairments?

Developmental dyslexia and congenital amusia have common characteristics. Yet, their possible association in some individuals has been addressed only scarcely. Recently, two converging studies reported a sizable comorbidity rate between these two neurodevelopmental disorders (Couvignou et al., Cognitive Neuropsychology 2019; Couvignou & Kolinsky, Neuropsychologia 2021). However, the reason for their association remains unclear. Here, we investigate the hypothesis of shared underlying impairments between dyslexia and amusia. Fifteen dyslexic children with amusia (DYS+A), 15 dyslexic children without amusia (DYS-A), and two groups of 25 typically developing children matched on either chronological age (CA) or reading level (RL) were assessed with a behavioral battery aiming to investigate phonological and pitch processing capacities at auditory memory, perceptual awareness, and attentional levels. Overall, our results suggest that poor auditory serial-order memory increases susceptibility to comorbidity between dyslexia and amusia and may play a role in the development of the comorbid phenotype. In contrast, the impairments observed in the DYS+A children for auditory item memory, perceptual awareness, and attention might be a consequence of their reduced reading experience combined with weaker musical skills. Comparing DYS+A and DYS-A children suggests that the latter are more resourceful and/or have more effective compensatory strategies, or that their phenotype results from a different developmental trajectory. We will discuss the relevance of these findings for delving into the etiology of these two developmental disorders and address their implications for future research and practice.

The association between working memory and mathematical problem solving: A three-level meta-analysis

Although working memory (WM) is an important factor in mathematical problem solving (MPS), it remains unclear how well WM relates to MPS. Thus, we aimed to determine this relationship by using a meta-analysis. We searched electronic databases for studies published between 2000 and 2020 and established operational criteria. We conducted Egger’s regression tests and created funnel plots to test for publication bias. Finally, a three-level meta-analytic model analysis of data from 130 studies involving 43,938 participants and 1,355 effect sizes revealed a moderate relationship between WM and MPS (r = 0.280, 95% CI = [0.263, 0.314]). Moreover, moderator analyses showed that: (1) dressed-up word problems were more strongly tied to WM than to intra-mathematical problems; (2) the central executive function showed the strongest relation with MPS, whereas the phonological loop had the weakest; (3) gender ratio had significant moderating effects; and (4) some of the above-mentioned significant moderating effects were unique after controlling for other factors. Implications for research and practice were also discussed.

Cerebro-Cerebellar Response to Sequence Violation in a Cognitive Task: an fMRI Study

The phonological loop is part of Baddeley's verbal working memory (VWM) model that stores phonological information and refreshes its contents through an articulatory process. Many studies have reported the cerebellum's involvement during VWM tasks. In the motor literature, the cerebellum is thought to support smooth and rapid movement sequences through internal models that simulate the action of motor commands, then use the error signals generating from the discrepancy between the predicted and actual sensory consequences to adjust the motor system. Here, we hypothesize that a similar monitoring and error-driven adjustment process can be extended to VWM; specifically, the cerebellum checks for discrepancies between the predicted and actual articulatory process to ensure the accuracy and fluency of articulatory rehearsal. During neuroimaging, participants rehearsed a sequence of letters in sync with the presentation of a visual pacing stimulus (#) that was terminated by the occurrence of a probe letter. Participants judged whether the probe was the correct letter in the sequence (i.e., match trial), or deviated from the sequence (i.e., mismatch trial). Detection of sequence violation was not only associated with prolonged reaction time but also an increased activation in a left executive control network. Psychophysiological interaction was used to investigate whether the cerebellum interacts with the cerebral cortex for error monitoring and adjustments. We found increased functional connectivity between the right cerebellum and the cerebral cortex during mismatch relative to match probes, indicating sequence violation resulting in greater cerebellar connectivity with areas in the cerebral cortex involved in phonological sequencing.

Exercise types and working memory components during development

Working memory is crucial to learning and academic success. Exercise has been found to benefit working memory in late life, but its effects during cognitive development are less clear. Building on findings that working memory is supported by the motor system, we highlight the sensitivity of different working memory components to acute and long-term exercise in children and adolescents. We also consider how the specific skill demands of endurance and coordinative exercise influence this sensitivity. Distinct effects of these exercise types are further linked with neurocognitive and neuroendocrine pathways. Our review suggests long-term rather than acute benefits of exercise for children and adolescents' working memory, which are more pronounced and specific for exercise with high coordinative demands.

The relation between working memory, number sense, and mathematics throughout primary education in children with and without mathematical difficulties

Number sense and working memory contribute to mathematical development throughout primary school. However, it is still unclear how the contributions of each of these predictors may change across development and whether the cognitive contribution is the same for children with and without mathematical difficulties. The aim of the two studies in this paper was to shed light on these topics. In a cross-sectional design, a typically developing group of children (study 1; N = 459, Grades 1-4) and a group with mathematical difficulties (study 2; N = 61, Grades 4-6) completed a battery of number sense and working memory tests, as well as a measure of arithmetic competence. Results of study 1 indicated that number sense was important in first grade, while working memory gained importance in second grade, before predictive value of both predictors waned. Number sense and working memory supported mathematics development independently from one another from Grade 1. Analysis of task demands showed that typically developing children rely on comprehension and visualization of quantity-to-number associations in early development. Later in development, pupils rely on comparing larger numerals and working memory until automatization. Children with mathematical difficulties were less able to employ number sense during mathematical operations, and thus might remain dependent on their working memory resources during arithmetic tasks. This suggests that children with mathematical difficulties need aid to employ working memory for mathematics from an early age to be able to automatize mathematical abilities later in development.

Separable effects of the approximate number system, symbolic number knowledge, and number ordering ability on early arithmetic development

There is evidence that early variations in the development of an approximate number system (ANS) and symbolic number understanding are both influences on the later development of formal arithmetic skills. We report a large-scale (N = 552) longitudinal study of the predictors of arithmetic spanning a critical developmental period (the first 3 years of formal education). Variations in early knowledge of symbolic representations of number and the ordinal associations between them are direct predictors of later arithmetic skills. The development of number ordering ability is in turn predicted by earlier variations in arithmetic, the ANS (numerosity judgments), and rapid automatized naming (RAN). These findings have important implications for theories of numerical and arithmetical development and potentially for the teaching of these skills.

Shared Neural Circuits for Visuospatial Working Memory and Arithmetic in Children and Adults

Visuospatial working memory (VSWM) plays an important role in arithmetic problem solving, and the relationship between these two skills is thought to change over development. Even though neuroimaging studies have demonstrated that VSWM and arithmetic both recruit frontoparietal networks, inferences about common neural substrates have largely been made by comparisons across studies. Little work has examined how brain activation for VSWM and arithmetic converge within the same participants and whether there are age-related changes in the overlap of these neural networks. In this study, we examined how brain activity for VSWM and arithmetic overlap in 38 children and 26 adults. Although both children and adults recruited the intraparietal sulcus (IPS) for VSWM and arithmetic, children showed more focal activation within the right IPS, whereas adults recruited the bilateral IPS, superior frontal sulcus/middle frontal gyrus, and right insula. A comparison of the two groups revealed that adults recruited a more left-lateralized network of frontoparietal regions for VSWM and arithmetic compared with children. Together, these findings suggest possible neurocognitive mechanisms underlying the strong relationship between VSWM and arithmetic and provide evidence that the association between VSWM and arithmetic networks changes with age.

Do serial order short-term memory and long-term learning abilities predict spelling skills in school-age children?

Compared to most human language abilities, the cognitive mechanisms underlying spelling have not been as intensively investigated as reading and therefore remain to this day less well understood. The current study aims to address this shortcoming by investigating the contribution of serial order short-term memory (STM) and long-term learning (LTL) abilities to emerging spelling skills. Indeed, although there are several reasons to assume associations between serial order memory and spelling abilities, this relationship has hardly been investigated empirically. In this study, we hypothesized that serial order STM plays an important role in spelling novel words, for which children are supposed to rely on a sequential nonlexical spelling procedure. Serial order LTL was hypothesized to be involved in the creation of more stable orthographic representations allowing children to spell (regular and irregular) words by using a lexical spelling strategy based on the direct access to orthographic representations stored in long-term memory. To assess these hypotheses, we conducted a longitudinal study in which we tested a sample of 116 French-speaking children at first grade and two years later at third grade of primary school. At first grade, we administered tasks that were specifically designed to maximize STM and LTL abilities for serial order information. At third grade, we assessed spelling abilities using irregular word, regular word, and pseudoword writing-to-dictation tasks. Bayesian regression analyses showed that pseudoword, but also irregular word spelling was best predicted by serial order STM, while regular word spelling was similarly predicted by both serial order STM and LTL.

The development of working memory spatialization revealed by using the cave paradigm in a two-alternative spatial choice

When Western participants are asked to keep in mind a sequence of verbal items, they tend to associate the first items to the left and the last items to the right. This phenomenon, known as the spatial-positional association response codes effect, has been interpreted as showing that individuals spatialize the memoranda by creating a left-to-right mental line with them. One important gap in our knowledge concerns the development of this phenomenon: when do Western individuals start organizing their thought from left to right? To answer this question, 274 participants in seven age groups were tested (kindergarten, Grades 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, and adults). We used a new protocol meant to be child-friendly, which involves associating two caves with two animals using a two-alternative spatial forced choice. Participants had to guess in which cave a specific animal could be hidden. Results showed that it is from Grade 3 on that participants spatialize information in working memory in a left-to-right fashion like adults.

Does 1 + 1 = 2nd? The relations between children's understanding of ordinal position and their arithmetic performance

The current study examined the relations between 5- and 6-year-olds' understanding of ordinality and their mathematical competence. We focused specifically on "positional operations," a property of ordinality not contingent on magnitude, in an effort to better understand the unique contributions of position-based ordinality to math development. Our findings revealed that two types of positional operations-the ability to execute representational movement along letter sequences and the ability to update ordinal positions after item insertion or removal-predicted children's arithmetic performance. Nevertheless, these positional operations did not mediate the relation between magnitude processing (as measured by the acuity of the approximate number system) and arithmetic performance. Taken together, these findings suggest a unique role for positional ordinality in math development. We suggest that positional ordinality may aid children in their mental organization of number symbols, which may facilitate solving arithmetic computations and may support the development of novel numerical concepts.

Physical fitness and executive functions in adolescents: cross-sectional associations with academic achievement

[Purpose] This study analyzed the relationship between fitness and executive functions in adolescents and its influence on academic achievement. [Participants and Methods] The design was cross-sectional. The sample included 713 adolescents (14.2 ± 1.5 years old). Physical fitness was evaluated using flexibility test, strength test, balance test and aerobic test. Executive function was evaluated with the tests (Stroop, Symbol digit, Trail making, Wechsler memory, and MESSY scale). Academic performance was evaluated through the school records. A partial correlational analysis of physical fitness and executive functions with respect to academic achievement was carried out. A multivariate linear regression was performed to identify the physical component model that best defined each of the executive functions. [Results] The analysis showed how academic achievement is significantly influenced, from a physical point of view, by resistance strength (r=0.21), aerobic endurance (r=0.188), and flexibility (r=0.17), whereas from a cognitive point of view it is significantly influenced by inhibition/interference (r=0.25), working memory (r=0.10) and processing speed (r=0.18). [Conclusion] The results indicate that the physical fitness and executive function are closely related and both have a significant influence on academic achievement.

The developmental neural substrates of item and serial order components of verbal working memory

Behavioral and developmental studies have made a critical distinction between item and serial order processing components of verbal working memory (WM). This functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study determined the extent to which item and serial order WM components are characterized by specialized neural networks already in young children or whether this specialization emerges at a later developmental stage. Total of 59 children aged 7-12 years performed item and serial order short-term probe recognition tasks in an fMRI experiment. While a left frontoparietal network was recruited in both item and serial order WM conditions, the right intraparietal sulcus was selectively involved in the serial order WM condition. This neural segregation was modulated by age, with both networks becoming increasingly separated in older children. Our results indicate a progressive specialization of networks involved in item and order WM processes during cognitive development.

Number comparison and number ordering as predictors of arithmetic performance in adults: Exploring the link between the two skills, and investigating the question of domain-specificity

Recent evidence has highlighted the important role that number-ordering skills play in arithmetic abilities, both in children and adults. In the current study, we demonstrated that number comparison and ordering skills were both significantly related to arithmetic performance in adults, and the effect size was greater in the case of ordering skills. Additionally, we found that the effect of number comparison skills on arithmetic performance was mediated by number-ordering skills. Moreover, performance on comparison and ordering tasks involving the months of the year was also strongly correlated with arithmetic skills, and participants displayed similar (canonical or reverse) distance effects on the comparison and ordering tasks involving months as when the tasks included numbers. This suggests that the processes responsible for the link between comparison and ordering skills and arithmetic performance are not specific to the domain of numbers. Finally, a factor analysis indicated that performance on comparison and ordering tasks loaded on a factor that included performance on a number line task and self-reported spatial thinking styles. These results substantially extend previous research on the role of order processing abilities in mental arithmetic.