Making sense of misfortune: deservingness, self-esteem, and patterns of self-defeat

Motivated Cognition in Cooperation

Successful cooperation is tightly linked to individuals' beliefs about their interaction partners, the decision setting, and existing norms, perceptions, and values. This article reviews and integrates findings from judgment and decision-making, social and cognitive psychology, political science, and economics, developing a systematic overview of the mechanisms underlying motivated cognition in cooperation. We elaborate on how theories and concepts related to motivated cognition developed in various disciplines define the concept and describe its functionality. We explain why beliefs play such an essential role in cooperation, how they can be distorted, and how this fosters or harms cooperation. We also highlight how individual differences and situational factors change the propensity to engage in motivated cognition. In the form of a construct map, we provide a visualization of the theoretical and empirical knowledge structure regarding the role of motivated cognition, including its many interdependencies, feedback loops, and moderating influences. We conclude with a brief suggestion for a future research agenda based on this compiled evidence.

Self-esteem influences the willingness to engage in COVID-19 prevention behavior and persuasion efficacy

RATIONALE

Behaviors such as hand-washing and vaccination save human lives during the COVID-19 pandemic and beyond. Yet, people differ widely in their willingness to engage in them. This investigation examines whether people's willingness to protect themselves physically from contracting coronavirus depends on their self-esteem. Based on self-verification theory, we propose that people who hold negative self-views are less motivated to protect their health which reduces their willingness to engage in recommended preventive measures such as mask-wearing and social-distancing.

OBJECTIVE

We set out to test (i) whether self-esteem predicts people's willingness to engage in COVID-19 prevention behaviors, (ii) whether this relationship is due to variance in motivation to protect one's health (as well as alternative mechanisms), and (iii) whether health messages can more successfully persuade low self-esteem people to follow preventive measures by framing those behaviors around protecting the health of others (vs. oneself).

METHODS

Four studies were conducted with U.S. and German residents. In Study 1, we examine the association between self-esteem, willingness to engage in self-protection behavior, health motivation, and several alternative accounts. In Study 2, we manipulate state self-esteem, and in Studies 3 and 4, we vary the target of COVID-19 prevention behaviors (self vs. other).

RESULTS

People with chronic or temporarily induced low self-esteem report a lower willingness to engage in COVID-19 prevention behaviors because they lack motivation to protect their health. Varying the protection target of preventive behaviors (self vs. others) interacts with self-esteem: Low self-esteem people are more willing to follow preventive measures (e.g., vaccination) when they are framed as protecting others (vs. oneself).

CONCLUSIONS

Self-esteem impacts people's behavior during a global pandemic and needs to be considered when designing health communications. Public health messages can increase compliance among individuals with lower self-esteem by framing prevention behaviors as a way to protect the health of others.

The effect of social networks on academic self-handicapping with the mediating role of self-regulatory learning strategies and academic achievement among EFL students

Introduction

In the academic context, social networking sites (SNSs) have reshaped the way university students connect and communicate with each other and the way they learn, thus influencing their identities and dimensions. This research investigates the effect of social networks on academic self-handicapping with the mediating role of self-regulatory and academic achievement.

Method

The current study is considered to be quantitative research in terms of its nature, applied research in terms of its purpose, and correlational descriptive one in terms of its method. The statistical population of the present study includes all language students of Tabriz University, whose number was 540 people. Sampling was done by the random sampling method. Using Morgan's table, the sample size was estimated to be 225 people in 2022. Due to the possibility of falling, 10% was added to this number, and 250 questionnaires were distributed among 250 participants; 17 questionnaires were incomplete, and a total of 233 valid questionnaires were examined. Four questionnaires were administered to collect data. SPSS 26 and AMOS 24 software were used to analyze the collected data from questionnaires. Descriptive, inferential, and Structural Covariance Matrix (SEM) statistics were conducted to explore the effect of social networks on these variables.

Results

Findings showed that social networks significantly impact self-handicapping in language students of Tabriz University. 2- Social networks have a significant impact on self- self-handicapping with a mediating role of self-regulation learning strategies in language students of Tabriz University. 3- Social networks significantly affect self-handicapping, mediating role in language students' academic progress at Tabriz University.

Discussion

Further investigation and experimentation into social networks are strongly recommended. In addition, studies show that self-handicapping is successful in helping individuals divert the assessments of others from attributing weak abilities to failure. Because self-handicapping behavior undermines achievement and can lead to long-term withdrawal from activities (such as school and college), parents and teachers must discourage self-handicapping and avoid behavior that may encourage it.

Protocol for the Healing After Loss (HeAL) Study: a randomised controlled trial of interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) for major depression following perinatal loss

INTRODUCTION

This protocol describes a study testing the efficacy of interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) for major depressive disorder following perinatal loss (early and late fetal death and early neonatal death). Perinatal loss is associated with elevated risk of major depressive disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Perinatal loss conveys specific treatment needs. The trial will be the first fully powered randomised trial of treatment for any psychiatric disorder following perinatal loss.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

A sample of 274 women in Flint and Detroit areas in Michigan who experience a major depressive episode following a perinatal loss will be randomised to group IPT for perinatal loss or to group coping with depression. We anticipate that 50% of the sample will have co-occurring PTSD. Assessments occur at baseline, mid-treatment (8 weeks), post-treatment (16 weeks) and follow-up (28 weeks). Clinical outcomes include time to recovery from major depressive episode (primary), depressive symptoms, PTSD symptoms and time to recovery from PTSD. Additional outcomes include social support, social role functioning (including parental functioning for those with living children), well-being, grief (including complicated grief and fault beliefs) and fear of subsequent pregnancies. Social support and grief are hypothesised mediators of IPT effects on time to recovery from major depressive episode.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

The trial was approved by Michigan State University's Biomedical Institutional Review Board. It has a data and safety monitoring board and has been submitted to the community-based organisation partners community ethics review board. Written operating procedures outline methods for protecting confidentiality, monitoring and recording adverse events, and safeguarding participants. We will share study results with research and clinical communities, community organisations through which we recruited, and will offer results to study participants. Deidentified datasets will be available through the National Institute of Mental Health Data Archive and to qualified investigators on request.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT04629599.

In good times and in bad: A longitudinal analysis of the impact of bereavement on self-esteem and life satisfaction in couples

This study examines the impact of bereavement on self-esteem and life satisfaction in both partners of a romantic couple. We investigate the moderating effects of the type of the lost relationship (close family, close friends/others) and romantic relationship characteristics (daily social support, responsiveness-closeness, self-disclosure). We examined 1238 individuals in 619 male–female couples from the ages 18 to 81 ( M [ SD] = 31.97 years [13.26]). Both partners completed questionnaires at two assessments that were 20 months ( SD = 2.02 months) apart, in between which n = 216 individuals were bereaved. Actor–partner interdependence models showed that bereavement did not predict later self-esteem or life satisfaction in either of the partners. The relationship characteristics and the type of lost relationship did not moderate the effects. The subjective meaning and distress of the loss predicted later self-esteem and life satisfaction. The self-esteem increase was larger for bereaved with a positive/neutral than for bereaved with a negative meaning of the bereavement. We found a partner effect on self-esteem for the group of bereaved who reported a negative meaning of the bereavement. The findings demonstrate that bereavement can impact romantic partners' self-esteem and that the subjective experience of bereavement helps understand individual differences in the effect of bereavement on self-esteem and life satisfaction.

Identifying criminals: No biasing effect of criminal context on recalled threat

To date, it is still unclear whether there is a systematic pattern in the errors made in eyewitness recall and whether certain features of a person are more likely to lead to false identification. Moreover, we also do not know the extent of systematic errors impacting identification of a person from their body rather than solely their face. To address this, based on the contextual model of eyewitness identification (CMEI; Osborne & Davies, 2014, Applied Cognitive Psychology, 28[3], 392-402), we hypothesized that having framed a target as a perpetrator of a violent crime, participants would recall that target person as appearing more like a stereotypical criminal (i.e., more threatening). In three separate experiments, participants were first presented with either no frame, a neutral frame, or a criminal frame (perpetrators of a violent crime) accompanying a target (either a face or body). Participants were then asked to identify the original target from a selection of people that varied in facial threat or body musculature. Contrary to our hypotheses, we found no evidence of bias. However, identification accuracy was highest for the most threatening target bodies high in musculature, as well as bodies paired with detailed neutral contextual information. Overall, these findings suggest that while no systematic bias exists in the recall of criminal bodies, the nature of the body itself and the context in which it is presented can significantly impact identification accuracy.

Postincident Interpersonal Difficulty Among Adolescent Victims of Violent Crime

Adolescents are exposed to high levels of violence in the United States. Exposure to violence at this point in the life course can have both short- and long-term consequences for young victims that include socioemotional distress and depression, substance abuse, and delinquency. Prior research indicates that positive, productive, and supportive reactions on the parts of those close to targets of violence attenuate feelings of distress and social anomie that many victims report. However, less attention has been devoted to the attributes of criminal violence that may stress the postincident interpersonal relationships of victims and their family members, friends, or peers. The disquieting effects of violence and bodily injury may influence how victims characterize their social connections in the wake of violent crime. This study uses data from the National Crime Victimization Survey (N = 1,652) to assess whether characteristics of violent acts and victims predict reports of postincident interpersonal difficulties made by violent crime victims aged 12 to 20. The findings are that more severe forms or levels of violence (e.g., robberies and sexual assaults) and reports of physical injuries are linked to perceptions of relationship difficulties with members of social networks by adolescent victims of violent crime. This study makes a contribution to our understanding of victimization by identifying levels of violence and injury as independent stressors on victims' perceptions of their relationships and as relevant components of how younger victims see themselves or are perceived by others. It also represents a direct test of whether attributes of violent acts undermine adolescents' perceptions of the quality of their relationships. The results of the study could also aid in the development of interventions that better address the needs of both young victims and their supporters.

Shame, guilt, and suicidal thoughts: The interaction matters

OBJECTIVES

This study examined associations between generalized shame and guilt, and suicidal ideation.

METHODS

Individuals attending outpatient mental health services (N = 100) completed study measures at a single time point. Correlation and regression analyses examined associations between recent suicidal ideation and generalized shame and guilt, both concurrently and interacting, controlling for depressive symptoms and history of previous suicide attempt.

RESULTS

When examined concurrently, guilt - but not shame - remained significantly associated with suicidal ideation, after accounting for effects of depressive symptoms and past suicide attempt. A significant shame × guilt interaction revealed the association between guilt and suicidal ideation intensified with higher shame.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings emphasize consideration of generalized shame and guilt - and their interaction - when working with patients exhibiting suicidal thoughts.

PRACTITIONER POINTS

Shame and guilt are self-conscious emotions that, when generalized and excessive, may confer risk for suicidal ideation Generalized guilt may be uniquely linked with suicidal ideation, yet this association may also amplified by shame Both shame and guilt - and their interaction - are important to consider when working with patients exhibiting suicidal thoughts.

Under Victimization by an Outgroup: Belief in a Just World, National Identification, and Ingroup Blame

Using representative probabilistic samples of Portuguese citizens and framed by an intergroup perspective, we carried out two studies aiming to address how national identification and belief in a just world (BJW) jointly predict secondary victimization of an ingroup as a whole (specifically ingroup blame). We conducted Study 1 (N = 779) in 2014, at the height of the European austerity policies imposed on Portugal by an institutional outgroup, specifically the Troika (the European Union, the European Central Bank, and the International Monetary Fund). Study 2 (N = 1140) was conducted after the Troika intervention. An environment of ongoing ingroup suffering caused by an outgroup is more threatening for the BJW of individuals who are more identified with the ingroup. We therefore predicted and found that BJW was positively associated with ingroup blame in participants higher in national identification when the victimization provoked by an institutional outgroup was higher (Study 1). However, when the suffering caused by the outgroup decreased, the association between BJW and secondary victimization was not moderated by individuals' national identification (Study 2). Indeed, a three-way interaction was found between BJW, national identification, and social context (high vs. low victimization). These results are an important contribution for the literature about justice motivation in terms of intergroup relations, because they show that secondary victimization produced by a threat to BJW has a group-based identity function.

Derogating Innocent Victims: The Effects of Relative Versus Absolute Character Judgments

Drawing on just-world theory and research into the suppression and justification of prejudice, we propose that the use of relative compared with absolute measures of an innocent victim's character enables observers to derogate the victim without transparently violating social norms or values proscribing derogation. In Study 1, we found that positive feelings expressed toward victims mirrored social norms proscribing negative reactions toward them. In Studies 2a, 2b, and 3, innocent victims were evaluated more negatively when ratings were made using relative (i.e., compared with evaluations of the average student or the self) versus absolute scales. In Study 4, this effect of scale type on derogation was stronger for people higher in the motivation to avoid prejudiced reactions to victims. Relative judgments seem to allow individuals to enact their counternormative motivation to derogate the victim under the cover of ambiguity and ostensibly rationally motivated social comparison processes.

Still Doing Fine? the Interplay of Negative Life Events and Self–Esteem during Young Adulthood

This longitudinal study investigated the bidirectional relationship between negative life events and self–esteem during the transition from adolescence to young adulthood (N = 2272). Drawing on theories of human development over the lifespan and just–world theory, we analyzed age–graded changes in self–esteem and their interplay with negative life events at three measurement points over a 12–year period. We addressed both the short–term and the longer term effects of single as well as multiple negative life events on changes in self–esteem (socialization effects). We further investigated whether the pre–event level of self–esteem affected the likelihood of negative life events occurring (selection effects) and, finally, whether it had protective effects in terms of helping people adjust to negative events. Latent change models yielded four main findings: (i) self–esteem increased during young adulthood; (ii) socialization effects were observed over shorter and longer timespans, but (iii) selection effects were only found for multiple negative life events, with low self–esteem predicting a high number of negative life events; (iv) high pre–event self–esteem acted as a protective factor, attenuating declines in self–esteem after experience of multiple negative life events. Copyright © 2016 European Association of Personality Psychology

Belief in a just what? Demystifying just world beliefs by distinguishing sources of justice

People’s Belief in a Just World (BJW) plays an important role in coping with misfortune and unfairness. This paper demonstrates that understanding of the BJW concept, and its consequences for behavior, is enhanced if we specify what (or who) the source of justice might be. We introduce a new scale, the 5-Dimensional Belief in a Just Treatment Scale (BJT5), which distinguishes five causal dimensions of BJW (God, Nature, Other People, Self, Chance). We confirm the 5-factor structure of the BJT5. We then address whether the BJW should be considered a uni- and/or multi-dimensional construct and find support for our multi-dimensional approach. Finally, we demonstrate convergent and discriminant validity with respect to important correlates of BJW as well as action in response to important negative life events and societal attitudes. This work illustrates the importance of distinguishing causal dimensions with regard to who distributes justice.

Getting "just deserts" or seeing the "silver lining": the relation between judgments of immanent and ultimate justice

People can perceive misfortunes as caused by previous bad deeds (immanent justice reasoning) or resulting in ultimate compensation (ultimate justice reasoning). Across two studies, we investigated the relation between these types of justice reasoning and identified the processes (perceptions of deservingness) that underlie them for both others (Study 1) and the self (Study 2). Study 1 demonstrated that observers engaged in more ultimate (vs. immanent) justice reasoning for a "good" victim and greater immanent (vs. ultimate) justice reasoning for a "bad" victim. In Study 2, participants' construals of their bad breaks varied as a function of their self-worth, with greater ultimate (immanent) justice reasoning for participants with higher (lower) self-esteem. Across both studies, perceived deservingness of bad breaks or perceived deservingness of ultimate compensation mediated immanent and ultimate justice reasoning respectively.