Adaptation of endoplasmic reticulum exit sites to acute and chronic increases in cargo load

Heat Shock-Induced PI(4)P Increase Drives HSPA1A Translocation to the Plasma Membrane in Cancer and Stressed Cells through PI4KIII Alpha Activation

HSPA1A, a major heat shock protein, is known to translocate to the plasma membrane (PM) in response to cellular stress and cancer, where it plays protective roles in membrane integrity and stress resistance. Although phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate [PI(4)P] is essential in this translocation, the signals that trigger and facilitate HSPA1A's movement remain undefined.Given that membrane lipid composition dynamically shifts during stress, we hypothesized that heat shock-induced PI(4)P changes are crucial for HSPA1A's PM localization. To test this hypothesis, we investigated the mechanisms driving PI(4)P changes and HSPA1A PM localization under heat shock. Lipidomic analysis, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and confocal imaging revealed a rapid PI(4)P increase at the PM post-heat shock, with levels peaking at 0 hours and declining by 8 hours. RNA sequencing and protein quantification indicated no transcriptional increase in PI4KIII alpha, the kinase responsible for PI(4)P synthesis, suggesting an alternative regulatory mechanism. Hypothesizing that heat shock enhances PI4KIII alpha activity, we performed ELISA coupled with immunoprecipitation, confirming a significant rise in PI4KIII alpha activity following heat shock. Functional analyses further demonstrated that RNAi-mediated PI4KIII alpha depletion or pharmacological PI(4)P reduction, using GSK-A1, impairs HSPA1A's localization to the PM, confirming that HSPA1A translocation is PI(4)P-dependent. Our findings identify PI4KIII alpha activity as a key regulator of PI(4)P accumulation and subsequent HSPA1A recruitment to the PM in stressed and cancer cells. This lipid-mediated response offers new insights into stress adaptation and potentially modifiable pathways for therapeutic interventions to control HSPA1A function in cancer.

qTAG: an adaptable plasmid scaffold for CRISPR-based endogenous tagging

Endogenous tagging enables the study of proteins within their native regulatory context, typically using CRISPR to insert tag sequences directly into the gene sequence. Here, we introduce qTAG, a collection of repair cassettes that makes endogenous tagging more accessible. The cassettes support N- and C-terminal tagging with commonly used selectable markers and feature restriction sites for easy modification. Lox sites also enable the removal of the marker gene after successful integration. We demonstrate the utility of qTAG with a range of diverse tags for applications in fluorescence imaging, proximity labeling, epitope tagging, and targeted protein degradation. The system includes novel tags like mStayGold, offering enhanced brightness and photostability for live-cell imaging of native protein dynamics. Additionally, we explore alternative cassette designs for conditional expression tagging, selectable knockout tagging, and safe-harbor expression. The plasmid collection is available through Addgene, featuring ready-to-use constructs for common subcellular markers and tagging cassettes to target genes of interest. The qTAG system will serve as an open resource for researchers to adapt and tailor their own experiments.

The unfolded protein response regulates ER exit sites via SNRPB-dependent RNA splicing and contributes to bone development

Splicing and endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-proteostasis are two key processes that ultimately regulate the functional proteins that are produced by a cell. However, the extent to which these processes interact remains poorly understood. Here, we identify SNRPB and other components of the Sm-ring, as targets of the unfolded protein response and novel regulators of export from the ER. Mechanistically, The Sm-ring regulates the splicing of components of the ER export machinery, including Sec16A, a component of ER exit sites. Loss of function of SNRPB is causally linked to cerebro-costo-mandibular syndrome (CCMS), a genetic disease characterized by bone defects. We show that heterozygous deletion of SNRPB in mice resulted in bone defects reminiscent of CCMS and that knockdown of SNRPB delays the trafficking of type-I collagen. Silencing SNRPB inhibited osteogenesis in vitro, which could be rescued by overexpression of Sec16A. This rescue indicates that the role of SNRPB in osteogenesis is linked to its effects on ER-export. Finally, we show that SNRPB is a target for the unfolded protein response, which supports a mechanistic link between the spliceosome and ER-proteostasis. Our work highlights components of the Sm-ring as a novel node in the proteostasis network, shedding light on CCMS pathophysiology.

Cell-Sonar, a Novel Method for Intracellular Tracking of Secretory Pathways

BACKGROUND

Intracellular tracking is commonly used in trafficking research. Until today, the respective techniques have remained complex, and complicated, mostly transgenic target protein changes are necessary, often requiring expensive equipment and expert knowledge.

METHODS

We present a novel method, which we term "cell-sonar", that enables the user to track expression changes of specific protein markers that serve as points of interaction. Our study provides comparable analyses of expression changes of these marker proteins by in-cell Western analyses in two otherwise isogenic cell lines that only differ in the overexpression of the tracked target protein. Using the overexpressed human adult muscle-type nicotinic acetylcholine receptor as an example, we demonstrate that cell-sonar can cover multiple intracellular compartments such as the endoplasmic reticulum, the pathway between it and the Golgi apparatus, and the endocytic pathway.

RESULTS

We provide evidence for receptor maturation in the Golgi and storage in recycling endosomes, rather than the fate of increased insertion into the plasma membrane. Additionally, we demonstrate with the implementation of nicotine that the receptor's destiny is exasperated up to secondary degradation.

CONCLUSIONS

Cell-sonar is an affordable, easy-to-implement, and cheap method that can be adapted to a broad variety of proteins and cellular pathways of interest to researchers.

Protein networking: nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and their protein-protein-associations

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) are complex transmembrane proteins involved in neurotransmission in the nervous system and at the neuromuscular junction. nAChR disorders may lead to severe, potentially fatal pathophysiological states. To date, the receptor has been the focus of basic and applied research to provide novel therapeutic interventions. Since most studies have investigated only the nAChR itself, it is necessary to consider the receptor as part of its protein network to understand or elucidate-specific pathways. On its way through the secretory pathway, the receptor interacts with several chaperones and proteins. This review takes a closer look at these molecular interactions and focuses especially on endoplasmic reticulum biogenesis, secretory pathway sorting, Golgi maturation, plasma membrane presentation, retrograde internalization, and recycling. Additional knowledge regarding the nAChR protein network may lead to a more detailed comprehension of the fundamental pathomechanisms of diseases or may lead to the discovery of novel therapeutic drug targets.

HTRA1-driven detachment of type I collagen from endoplasmic reticulum contributes to myocardial fibrosis in dilated cardiomyopathy

BACKGROUND

The aberrant secretion and excessive deposition of type I collagen (Col1) are important factors in the pathogenesis of myocardial fibrosis in dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM). However, the precise molecular mechanisms underlying the synthesis and secretion of Col1 remain unclear.

METHODS AND RESULTS

RNA-sequencing analysis revealed an increased HtrA serine peptidase 1 (HTRA1) expression in patients with DCM, which is strongly correlated with myocardial fibrosis. Consistent findings were observed in both human and mouse tissues by immunoblotting, quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), immunohistochemistry, and immunofluorescence analyses. Pearson's analysis showed a markedly positive correlation between HTRA1 level and myocardial fibrosis indicators, including extracellular volume fraction (ECV), native T1, and late gadolinium enhancement (LGE), in patients with DCM. In vitro experiments showed that the suppression of HTRA1 inhibited the conversion of cardiac fibroblasts into myofibroblasts and decreased Col1 secretion. Further investigations identified the role of HTRA1 in promoting the formation of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) exit sites, which facilitated the transportation of Col1 from the ER to the Golgi apparatus, thereby increasing its secretion. Conversely, HTRA1 knockdown impeded the retention of Col1 in the ER, triggering ER stress and subsequent induction of ER autophagy to degrade misfolded Col1 and maintain ER homeostasis. In vivo experiments using adeno-associated virus-serotype 9-shHTRA1-green fluorescent protein (AAV9-shHTRA1-GFP) showed that HTRA1 knockdown effectively suppressed myocardial fibrosis and improved left ventricular function in mice with DCM.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of this study provide valuable insights regarding the treatment of DCM-associated myocardial fibrosis and highlight the therapeutic potential of targeting HTRA1-mediated collagen secretion.

ER exit in physiology and disease

The biosynthetic secretory pathway is comprised of multiple steps, modifications and interactions that form a highly precise pathway of protein trafficking and secretion, that is essential for eukaryotic life. The general outline of this pathway is understood, however the specific mechanisms are still unclear. In the last 15 years there have been vast advancements in technology that enable us to advance our understanding of this complex and subtle pathway. Therefore, based on the strong foundation of work performed over the last 40 years, we can now build another level of understanding, using the new technologies available. The biosynthetic secretory pathway is a high precision process, that involves a number of tightly regulated steps: Protein folding and quality control, cargo selection for Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) exit, Golgi trafficking, sorting and secretion. When deregulated it causes severe diseases that here we categorise into three main groups of aberrant secretion: decreased, excess and altered secretion. Each of these categories disrupts organ homeostasis differently, effecting extracellular matrix composition, changing signalling events, or damaging the secretory cells due to aberrant intracellular accumulation of secretory proteins. Diseases of aberrant secretion are very common, but despite this, there are few effective therapies. Here we describe ER exit sites (ERES) as key hubs for regulation of the secretory pathway, protein quality control and an integratory hub for signalling within the cell. This review also describes the challenges that will be faced in developing effective therapies, due to the specificity required of potential drug candidates and the crucial need to respect the fine equilibrium of the pathway. The development of novel tools is moving forward, and we can also use these tools to build our understanding of the acute regulation of ERES and protein trafficking. Here we review ERES regulation in context as a therapeutic strategy.

Mechanobiology of organelles: illuminating their roles in mechanosensing and mechanotransduction

Mechanobiology studies the mechanisms by which cells sense and respond to physical forces, and the role of these forces in shaping cells and tissues themselves. Mechanosensing can occur at the plasma membrane, which is directly exposed to external forces, but also in the cell's interior, for example, through deformation of the nucleus. Less is known on how the function and morphology of organelles are influenced by alterations in their own mechanical properties, or by external forces. Here, we discuss recent advances on the mechanosensing and mechanotransduction of organelles, including the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), the Golgi apparatus, the endo-lysosmal system, and the mitochondria. We highlight open questions that need to be addressed to gain a broader understanding of the role of organelle mechanobiology.

TANGO1 Dances to Export of Procollagen from the Endoplasmic Reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to Golgi secretory pathway is an elegantly complex process whereby protein cargoes are manufactured, folded, and distributed from the ER to the cisternal layers of the Golgi stack before they are delivered to their final destinations. The export of large bulky cargoes such as procollagen and its trafficking to the Golgi is a sophisticated mechanism requiring TANGO1 (Transport ANd Golgi Organization protein 1. It is also called MIA3 (Melanoma Inhibitory Activity protein 3). TANGO1 has two prominent isoforms, TANGO1-Long and TANGO1-Short, and each isoform has specific functions. On the luminal side, TANGO1-Long has an HSP47 recruitment domain and uses this protein to collect collagen. It can also tether its paralog isoforms cTAGE5 and TALI and along with these proteins enlarges the vesicle to accommodate procollagen. Recent studies show that TANGO1-Long combines retrograde membrane flow with anterograde cargo transport. This complex mechanism is highly activated in fibrosis and promotes the excessive deposition of collagen in the tissues. The therapeutic targeting of TANGO1 may prove successful in the control of fibrotic disorders. This review focuses on TANGO1 and its complex interaction with other procollagen export factors that modulate increased vesicle size to accommodate the export of procollagen.

ALS/FTD-associated mutation in cyclin F inhibits ER-Golgi trafficking, inducing ER stress, ERAD and Golgi fragmentation

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a severely debilitating neurodegenerative condition that is part of the same disease spectrum as frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Mutations in the CCNF gene, encoding cyclin F, are present in both sporadic and familial ALS and FTD. However, the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying neurodegeneration remain unclear. Proper functioning of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi apparatus compartments is essential for normal physiological activities and to maintain cellular viability. Here, we demonstrate that ALS/FTD-associated variant cyclin FS621G inhibits secretory protein transport from the ER to Golgi apparatus, by a mechanism involving dysregulation of COPII vesicles at ER exit sites. Consistent with this finding, cyclin FS621G also induces fragmentation of the Golgi apparatus and activates ER stress, ER-associated degradation, and apoptosis. Induction of Golgi fragmentation and ER stress were confirmed with a second ALS/FTD variant cyclin FS195R, and in cortical primary neurons. Hence, this study provides novel insights into pathogenic mechanisms associated with ALS/FTD-variant cyclin F, involving perturbations to both secretory protein trafficking and ER-Golgi homeostasis.

Endoplasmic Reticulum Exit Sites scale with somato-dendritic size in neurons

Nervous systems exhibit dramatic diversity in cell morphology and size. How neurons regulate their biosynthetic and secretory machinery to support such diversity is not well understood. Endoplasmic reticulum exit sites (ERESs) are essential for maintaining secretory flux, and are required for normal dendrite development, but how neurons of different size regulate secretory capacity remains unknown. In Caenorhabditis elegans, we find that the ERES number is strongly correlated with the size of a neuron's dendritic arbor. The elaborately branched sensory neuron, PVD, has especially high ERES numbers. Asymmetric cell division provides PVD with a large initial cell size critical for rapid establishment of PVD's high ERES number before neurite outgrowth, and these ERESs are maintained throughout development. Maintenance of ERES number requires the cell fate transcription factor MEC-3, C. elegans TOR (ceTOR/let-363), and nutrient availability, with mec-3 and ceTOR/let-363 mutant PVDs both displaying reductions in ERES number, soma size, and dendrite size. Notably, mec-3 mutant animals exhibit reduced expression of a ceTOR/let-363 reporter in PVD, and starvation reduces ERES number and somato-dendritic size in a manner genetically redundant with ceTOR/let-363 perturbation. Our data suggest that both asymmetric cell division and nutrient sensing pathways regulate secretory capacities to support elaborate dendritic arbors.

Impact of interorganelle coordination between the conventional early secretory pathway and autophagy in cellular homeostasis and stress response

The conventional early secretory pathway and autophagy are two essential interconnected cellular processes that are crucial for maintaining cellular homeostasis. The conventional secretory pathway is an anabolic cellular process synthesizing and delivering proteins to distinct locations, including different organelles, the plasma membrane, and the extracellular media. On the other hand, autophagy is a catabolic cellular process that engulfs damaged organelles and aberrant cytosolic constituents into the double autophagosome membrane. After fusion with the lysosome and autolysosome formation, this process triggers digestion and recycling. A growing list of evidence indicates that these anabolic and catabolic processes are mutually regulated. While knowledge about the molecular actors involved in the coordination and functional cooperation between these two processes has increased over time, the mechanisms are still poorly understood. This review article summarized and discussed the most relevant evidence about the key molecular players implicated in the interorganelle crosstalk between the early secretory pathway and autophagy under normal and stressful conditions.

Pancreatic beta cell ER export in health and diabetes

In the secretory pathway of the pancreatic beta cell, proinsulin and other secretory granule proteins are first produced in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Beta cell ER homeostasis is vital for normal beta cell functions and is maintained by the delicate balance between protein synthesis, folding, export and degradation. Disruption of ER homeostasis leads to beta cell death and diabetes. Among the four components to maintain ER homeostasis, the role of ER export in insulin biogenesis or beta cell survival was not well-understood. COPII (coat protein complex II) dependent transport is a conserved mechanism for most cargo proteins to exit ER and transport to Golgi apparatus. Emerging evidence began to reveal a critical role of COPII-dependent ER export in beta cells. In this review, we will first discuss the basic components of the COPII transport machinery, the regulation of cargo entry and COPII coat assembly in mammalian cells, and the general concept of receptor-mediated cargo sorting in COPII vesicles. On the basis of these general discussions, the current knowledge and recent developments specific to the beta cell COPII dependent ER export are summarized under normal and diabetic conditions.

On the nature of the plant ER exit sites

In plants, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi bodies are not only in close proximity, but are also physically linked. This unique organization raises questions about the nature of the transport vectors carrying cargo between the two organelles. Same as in metazoan and yeast cells, it was suggested that cargo is transported from the ER to Golgi cisternae via COPII-coated vesicles produced at ribosome-free ER exit sites (ERES). Recent developments in mammalian cell research suggest, though, that COPII helps to select secretory cargo, but does not coat the carriers leaving the ER. Furthermore, it was shown that mammalian ERES expand into a tubular network containing secretory cargo, but no COPII components. Because of the close association of the ER and Golgi bodies in plant cells, it was previously proposed that ERES and the Golgi comprise a secretory unit that travels over or with a motile ER membrane. In this study, we aimed to explore the nature of ERES in plant cells and took advantage of high-resolution confocal microscopy and imaged ERES labelled with canonical markers (Sar1a, Sec16, Sec24). We found that ERES are dynamically connected to Golgi bodies and most likely represent pre-cis-Golgi cisternae. Furthermore, we showed fine tubular connections from the ER to Golgi compartments (ERGo tubules) as well as fine protrusions from ERES/Golgi cisternae connecting with the ER. We suggest that these tubules observed between the ER and Golgi as well as between the ER and ERES are involved in stabilizing the physical connection between ER and ERES/Golgi cisternae, but may also be involved in cargo transport from the ER to Golgi bodies.

Mechanical strain stimulates COPII-dependent secretory trafficking via Rac1

Cells are constantly exposed to various chemical and physical stimuli. While much has been learned about the biochemical factors that regulate secretory trafficking from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), much less is known about whether and how this trafficking is subject to regulation by mechanical signals. Here, we show that subjecting cells to mechanical strain both induces the formation of ER exit sites (ERES) and accelerates ER-to-Golgi trafficking. We found that cells with impaired ERES function were less capable of expanding their surface area when placed under mechanical stress and were more prone to develop plasma membrane defects when subjected to stretching. Thus, coupling of ERES function to mechanotransduction appears to confer resistance of cells to mechanical stress. Furthermore, we show that the coupling of mechanotransduction to ERES formation was mediated via a previously unappreciated ER-localized pool of the small GTPase Rac1. Mechanistically, we show that Rac1 interacts with the small GTPase Sar1 to drive budding of COPII carriers and stimulates ER-to-Golgi transport. This interaction therefore represents an unprecedented link between mechanical strain and export from the ER.

Proximity Profiling of the CFTR Interaction Landscape in Response to Orkambi

Deletion of phenylalanine 508 (∆F508) of the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator (CFTR) anion channel protein is the leading cause of Cystic Fibrosis (CF). Here, we report the analysis of CFTR and ∆F508-CFTR interactomes using BioID (proximity-dependent biotin identification), a technique that can also detect transient associations. We identified 474 high-confidence CFTR proximity-interactors, 57 of which have been previously validated, with the remainder representing novel interaction space. The ∆F508 interactome, comprising 626 proximity-interactors was markedly different from its wild type counterpart, with numerous alterations in protein associations categorized in membrane trafficking and cellular stress functions. Furthermore, analysis of the ∆F508 interactome in cells treated with Orkambi identified several interactions that were altered as a result of this drug therapy. We examined two candidate CFTR proximity interactors, VAPB and NOS1AP, in functional assays designed to assess surface delivery and overall chloride efflux. VAPB depletion impacted both CFTR surface delivery and chloride efflux, whereas NOS1AP depletion only affected the latter. The wild type and ∆F508-CFTR interactomes represent rich datasets that could be further mined to reveal additional candidates for the functional rescue of ∆F508-CFTR.

Nuclear and cytoplasmic huntingtin inclusions exhibit distinct biochemical composition, interactome and ultrastructural properties

Despite the strong evidence linking the aggregation of the Huntingtin protein (Htt) to the pathogenesis of Huntington's disease (HD), the mechanisms underlying Htt aggregation and neurodegeneration remain poorly understood. Herein, we investigated the ultrastructural properties and protein composition of Htt cytoplasmic and nuclear inclusions in mammalian cells and primary neurons overexpressing mutant exon1 of the Htt protein. Our findings provide unique insight into the ultrastructural properties of cytoplasmic and nuclear Htt inclusions and their mechanisms of formation. We show that Htt inclusion formation and maturation are complex processes that, although initially driven by polyQ-dependent Htt aggregation, also involve the polyQ and PRD domain-dependent sequestration of lipids and cytoplasmic and cytoskeletal proteins related to HD dysregulated pathways; the recruitment and accumulation of remodeled or dysfunctional membranous organelles, and the impairment of the protein quality control and degradation machinery. We also show that nuclear and cytoplasmic Htt inclusions exhibit distinct biochemical compositions and ultrastructural properties, suggesting different mechanisms of aggregation and toxicity.

Profound architectural and functional readjustments of the secretory pathway in decidualization of endometrial stromal cells

Certain cell types must expand their exocytic pathway to guarantee efficiency and fidelity of protein secretion. A spectacular case is offered by decidualizing human endometrial stromal cells (EnSCs). In the midluteal phase of the menstrual cycle, progesterone stimulation induces proliferating EnSCs to differentiate into professional secretors releasing proteins essential for efficient blastocyst implantation. Here, we describe the architectural rearrangements of the secretory pathway of a human EnSC line (TERT-immortalized human endometrial stromal cells (T-HESC)). As in primary cells, decidualization entails proliferation arrest and the coordinated expansion of the entire secretory pathway without detectable activation of unfolded protein response (UPR) pathways. Decidualization proceeds also in the absence of ascorbic acid, an essential cofactor for collagen biogenesis, despite also the secretion of some proteins whose folding does not depend on vitamin C is impaired. However, even in these conditions, no overt UPR induction can be detected. Morphometric analyses reveal that the exocytic pathway does not increase relatively to the volume of the cell. Thus, differently from other cell types, abundant production is guaranteed by a coordinated increase of the cell size following arrest of proliferation.

ER exit sites in Drosophila display abundant ER-Golgi vesicles and pearled tubes but no megacarriers

Secretory cargos are collected at endoplasmic reticulum (ER) exit sites (ERES) before transport to the Golgi apparatus. Decades of research have provided many details of the molecular events underlying ER-Golgi exchanges. Essential questions, however, remain about the organization of the ER-Golgi interface in cells and the type of membrane structures mediating traffic from ERES. To investigate these, we use transgenic tagging in Drosophila flies, 3D-structured illumination microscopy (SIM), and focused ion beam scanning electron microscopy (FIB-SEM) to characterize ERES-Golgi units in collagen-producing fat body, imaginal discs, and imaginal discs overexpressing ERES determinant Tango1. Facing ERES, we find a pre-cis-Golgi region, equivalent to the vertebrate ER-Golgi intermediate compartment (ERGIC), involved in both anterograde and retrograde transport. This pre-cis-Golgi is continuous with the rest of the Golgi, not a separate compartment or collection of large carriers, for which we find no evidence. We observe, however, many vesicles, as well as pearled tubules connecting ERES and Golgi.

Want to leave the ER? We offer vesicles, tubules, and tunnels

Export from the ER is COPII-dependent. However, there is disagreement on the nature of the cargo-containing carriers that exit the ER. Two new studies from Shomron et al. (2021. J. Cell Biol.https://doi.org/10.1083/jcb.201907224) and Weigel et al. (2021. Cell. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2021.03.035) present a new model, where COPII helps to select secretory cargo but does not coat the carriers leaving the ER.

COPII collar defines the boundary between ER and ER exit site and does not coat cargo containers

COPII and COPI mediate the formation of membrane vesicles translocating in opposite directions within the secretory pathway. Live-cell and electron microscopy revealed a novel mode of function for COPII during cargo export from the ER. COPII is recruited to membranes defining the boundary between the ER and ER exit sites, facilitating selective cargo concentration. Using direct observation of living cells, we monitored cargo selection processes, accumulation, and fission of COPII-free ERES membranes. CRISPR/Cas12a tagging, the RUSH system, and pharmaceutical and genetic perturbations of ER-Golgi transport demonstrated that the COPII coat remains bound to the ER–ERES boundary during protein export. Manipulation of the cargo-binding domain in COPII Sec24B prohibits cargo accumulation in ERES. These findings suggest a role for COPII in selecting and concentrating exported cargo rather than coating Golgi-bound carriers. These findings transform our understanding of coat proteins’ role in ER-to-Golgi transport.

Cargo crowding contributes to sorting stringency in COPII vesicles

Accurate maintenance of organelle identity in the secretory pathway relies on retention and retrieval of resident proteins. In the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), secretory proteins are packaged into COPII vesicles that largely exclude ER residents and misfolded proteins by mechanisms that remain unresolved. Here we combined biochemistry and genetics with correlative light and electron microscopy (CLEM) to explore how selectivity is achieved. Our data suggest that vesicle occupancy contributes to ER retention: in the absence of abundant cargo, nonspecific bulk flow increases. We demonstrate that ER leakage is influenced by vesicle size and cargo occupancy: overexpressing an inert cargo protein or reducing vesicle size restores sorting stringency. We propose that cargo recruitment into vesicles creates a crowded lumen that drives selectivity. Retention of ER residents thus derives in part from the biophysical process of cargo enrichment into a constrained spherical membrane-bound carrier.

Comparative proteomic and transcriptomic analysis reveals high pH-induced expression signatures of Chinese shrimp Fenneropenaeus chinensis

pH has a great impact on the distribution, growth, behavior, and physiology in many aquatic animals. The comparison of proteomics between normal and high pH stress samples was successfully achieved using iTRAQ proteomic analysis to screen key response proteins and pathways. After high pH stress, 124 upregulated and 41 downregulated proteins were identified. The higher expression levels of proteins like citrate synthase, glutathione S-transferase, glutathione peroxidase, and cytochrome c oxidase are associated with oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction. The upregulation of glucose-regulated protein 78 indicated that the endoplasmic reticulum stress is induced by high pH stress. There were significant upregulation expressions of V-type H⁺-ATPase, Na⁺, K⁺-ATPase, 14-3-3 protein, as well as ATP-binding cassette transmembrane transporters after high pH exposure, which indicating their important roles in response to high pH stress. The abundance of proteins involved in protein glycosylation, oxidative pentose phosphate pathway, protein export, and glutathione metabolism were found enriched in high pH group than in control group. Quantitative proteomic profiling and integrated analysis with transcriptomic data provide new insights into the mechanisms underlying the molecular response to high pH stress in Fenneropenaeus chinensis.

Tunnels for Protein Export from the Endoplasmic Reticulum

The functions of coat protein complex II (COPII) coats in cargo packaging and the creation of vesicles at the endoplasmic reticulum are conserved in eukaryotic protein secretion. Standard COPII vesicles, however, cannot handle the secretion of metazoan-specific cargoes such as procollagens, apolipoproteins, and mucins. Metazoans have thus evolved modules centered on proteins like TANGO1 (transport and Golgi organization 1) to engage COPII coats and early secretory pathway membranes to engineer a novel mode of cargo export at the endoplasmic reticulum.

Export Control: Post-transcriptional Regulation of the COPII Trafficking Pathway

The coat protein complex II (COPII) mediates forward trafficking of protein and lipid cargoes from the endoplasmic reticulum. COPII is an ancient and essential pathway in all eukaryotes and COPII dysfunction underlies a range of human diseases. Despite this broad significance, major aspects of COPII trafficking remain incompletely understood. For example, while the biochemical features of COPII vesicle formation are relatively well characterized, much less is known about how the COPII system dynamically adjusts its activity to changing physiologic cues or stresses. Recently, post-transcriptional mechanisms have emerged as a major mode of COPII regulation. Here, we review the current literature on how post-transcriptional events, and especially post-translational modifications, govern the COPII pathway.

TANGO1 membrane helices create a lipid diffusion barrier at curved membranes

We have previously shown TANGO1 organises membranes at the interface of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and ERGIC/Golgi (Raote et al., 2018). TANGO1 corrals retrograde membranes at ER exit sites to create an export conduit. Here the retrograde membrane is, in itself, an anterograde carrier. This mode of forward transport necessitates a mechanism to prevent membrane mixing between ER and the retrograde membrane. TANGO1 has an unusual membrane helix organisation, composed of one membrane-spanning helix (TM) and another that penetrates the inner leaflet (IM). We have reconstituted these membrane helices in model membranes and shown that TM and IM together reduce the flow of lipids at a region of defined shape. We have also shown that the helices align TANGO1 around an ER exit site. We suggest this is a mechanism to prevent membrane mixing during TANGO1-mediated transfer of bulky secretory cargos from the ER to the ERGIC/Golgi via a tunnel.

PB. Transcriptomic and Proteostasis Networks of CFTR and the Development of Small Molecule Modulators for the Treatment of Cystic Fibrosis Lung Disease

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a lethal autosomal recessive disease caused by mutations in the CF transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene. The diversity of mutations and the multiple ways by which the protein is affected present challenges for therapeutic development. The observation that the Phe508del-CFTR mutant protein is temperature sensitive provided proof of principle that mutant CFTR could escape proteosomal degradation and retain partial function. Several specific protein interactors and quality control checkpoints encountered by CFTR during its proteostasis have been investigated for therapeutic purposes, but remain incompletely understood. Furthermore, pharmacological manipulation of many CFTR interactors has not been thoroughly investigated for the rescue of Phe508del-CFTR. However, high-throughput screening technologies helped identify several small molecule modulators that rescue CFTR from proteosomal degradation and restore partial function to the protein. Here, we discuss the current state of CFTR transcriptomic and biogenesis research and small molecule therapy development. We also review recent progress in CFTR proteostasis modulators and discuss how such treatments could complement current FDA-approved small molecules.

Regulation of CFTR Biogenesis by the Proteostatic Network and Pharmacological Modulators

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is the most common lethal inherited disease among Caucasians in North America and a significant portion of Europe. The disease arises from one of many mutations in the gene encoding the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator, or CFTR. The most common disease-associated allele, F508del, along with several other mutations affect the folding, transport, and stability of CFTR as it transits from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to the plasma membrane, where it functions primarily as a chloride channel. Early data demonstrated that F508del CFTR is selected for ER associated degradation (ERAD), a pathway in which misfolded proteins are recognized by ER-associated molecular chaperones, ubiquitinated, and delivered to the proteasome for degradation. Later studies showed that F508del CFTR that is rescued from ERAD and folds can alternatively be selected for enhanced endocytosis and lysosomal degradation. A number of other disease-causing mutations in CFTR also undergo these events. Fortunately, pharmacological modulators of CFTR biogenesis can repair CFTR, permitting its folding, escape from ERAD, and function at the cell surface. In this article, we review the many cellular checkpoints that monitor CFTR biogenesis, discuss the emergence of effective treatments for CF, and highlight future areas of research on the proteostatic control of CFTR.

Auto-regulation of Secretory Flux by Sensing and Responding to the Folded Cargo Protein Load in the Endoplasmic Reticulum

Maintaining the optimal performance of cell processes and organelles is the task of auto-regulatory systems. Here we describe an auto-regulatory device that helps to maintain homeostasis of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) by adjusting the secretory flux to the cargo load. The cargo-recruiting subunit of the coatomer protein II (COPII) coat, Sec24, doubles as a sensor of folded cargo and, upon cargo binding, acts as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor to activate the signaling protein Gα12 at the ER exit sites (ERESs). This step, in turn, activates a complex signaling network that activates and coordinates the ER export machinery and attenuates proteins synthesis, thus preventing large fluctuations of folded and potentially active cargo that could be harmful to the cell or the organism. We call this mechanism AREX (autoregulation of ER export) and expect that its identification will aid our understanding of human physiology and diseases that develop from secretory dysfunction.

How to Avoid a No-Deal ER Exit

Efficiency and fidelity of protein secretion are achieved thanks to the presence of different steps, located sequentially in time and space along the secretory compartment, controlling protein folding and maturation. After entering into the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), secretory proteins attain their native structure thanks to specific chaperones and enzymes. Only correctly folded molecules are allowed by quality control (QC) mechanisms to leave the ER and proceed to downstream compartments. Proteins that cannot fold properly are instead retained in the ER to be finally destined to proteasomal degradation. Exiting from the ER requires, in most cases, the use of coated vesicles, departing at the ER exit sites, which will fuse with the Golgi compartment, thus releasing their cargoes. Protein accumulation in the ER can be caused by a too stringent QC or by ineffective transport: these situations could be deleterious for the organism, due to the loss of the secreted protein, and to the cell itself, because of abnormal increase of protein concentration in the ER. In both cases, diseases can arise. In this review, we will describe the pathophysiology of protein folding and transport between the ER and the Golgi compartment.

Dopey1-Mon2 complex binds to dual-lipids and recruits kinesin-1 for membrane trafficking

Proteins are transported among eukaryotic organelles along the cytoskeleton in membrane carriers. The mechanism regarding the motility of carriers and the positioning of organelles is a fundamental question in cell biology that remains incompletely understood. Here, we find that Dopey1 and Mon2 assemble into a complex and localize to the Golgi, endolysosome and endoplasmic reticulum exit site. The Golgi localization of Dopey1 and Mon2 requires their binding to phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate and phosphatidic acid, respectively, two lipids known for the biogenesis of membrane carriers and the specification of organelle identities. The N-terminus of Dopey1 further interacts with kinesin-1, a plus-end or centrifugal-direction microtubule motor. Dopey1-Mon2 complex functions as a dual-lipid-regulated cargo-adaptor to recruit kinesin-1 to secretory and endocytic organelles or membrane carriers for centrifugally biased bidirectional transport. Dopey1-Mon2 complex therefore provides an important missing link to coordinate the budding of a membrane carrier and subsequent bidirectional transport along the microtubule.

Proteins are transported among eukaryotic organelles along the cytoskeleton in membrane carriers. Here authors find that the Dopey1-Mon2 complex functions as a dual-lipid-regulated cargo-adaptor to recruit kinesin-1 to secretory and endocytic organelles or membrane carriers.

PERK-Mediated Unfolded Protein Response Activation and Oxidative Stress in PARK20 Fibroblasts

PARK20, an early onset autosomal recessive parkinsonism is due to mutations in the phosphatidylinositol-phosphatase Synaptojanin 1 (Synj1). We have recently shown that the early endosomal compartments are profoundly altered in PARK20 fibroblasts as well as the endosomal trafficking. Here, we report that PARK20 fibroblasts also display a drastic alteration of the architecture and function of the early secretory compartments. Our results show that the exit machinery from the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) and the ER-to-Golgi trafficking are markedly compromised in patient cells. As a consequence, PARK20 fibroblasts accumulate large amounts of cargo proteins within the ER, leading to the induction of ER stress. Interestingly, this stressful state is coupled to the activation of the PERK/eIF2α/ATF4/CHOP pathway of the Unfolded Protein Response (UPR). In addition, PARK20 fibroblasts reveal upregulation of oxidative stress markers and total ROS production with concomitant alteration of the morphology of the mitochondrial network. Interestingly, treatment of PARK20 cells with GSK2606414 (GSK), a specific inhibitor of PERK activity, restores the level of ROS, signaling a direct correlation between ER stress and the induction of oxidative stress in the PARK20 cells. All together, these findings suggest that dysfunction of early secretory pathway might contribute to the pathogenesis of the disease.

Lipid synthesis and transport are coupled to regulate membrane lipid dynamics in the endoplasmic reticulum

Structural lipids are mostly synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), from which they are actively transported to the membranes of other organelles. Lipids can leave the ER through vesicular trafficking or non-vesicular lipid transfer and, curiously, both processes can be regulated either by the transported lipid cargos themselves or by different secondary lipid species. For most structural lipids, transport out of the ER membrane is a key regulatory component controlling their synthesis. Distribution of the lipids between the two leaflets of the ER bilayer or between the ER and other membranes is also critical for maintaining the unique membrane properties of each cellular organelle. How cells integrate these processes within the ER depends on fine spatial segregation of the molecular components and intricate metabolic channeling, both of which we are only beginning to understand. This review will summarize some of these complex processes and attempt to identify the organizing principles that start to emerge. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Endoplasmic reticulum platforms for lipid dynamics edited by Shamshad Cockcroft and Christopher Stefan.

Impact of Lipotoxicity on Tissue "Cross Talk" and Metabolic Regulation

Obesity-associated comorbidities include non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, Type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. These diseases are associated with accumulation of lipids in non-adipose tissues, which can impact many intracellular cellular signaling pathways and functions that have been broadly defined as "lipotoxic." This review moves beyond understanding intracellular lipotoxic outcomes and outlines the consequences of lipotoxicity on protein secretion and inter-tissue "cross talk," and the impact this exerts on systemic metabolism.

Genome-wide identification of alternative splicing events that regulate protein transport across the secretory pathway

Alternative splicing (AS) strongly increases proteome diversity and functionality in eukaryotic cells. Protein secretion is a tightly-controlled process, especially in a tissue-specific and differentiation-dependent manner. While previous work has focussed on transcriptional and post-translational regulatory mechanisms, the impact of AS on the secretory pathway remains largely unexplored. Here we integrate a published screen for modulators of protein transport and RNA-Seq analyses to identify over 200 AS events as secretion regulators. We confirm that splicing events along all stages of the secretory pathway regulate the efficiency of membrane trafficking using Morpholinos and CRISPR/Cas9. We furthermore show that these events are highly tissue-specific and adapt the secretory pathway during T-cell activation and adipocyte differentiation. Our data substantially advance the understanding of AS functionality, add a new regulatory layer to a fundamental cell biological process and provide a resource of alternative isoforms that control the secretory pathway.

Effect of the unfolded protein response on ER protein export: a potential new mechanism to relieve ER stress

The unfolded protein response (UPR) is an adaptive cellular response that aims to relieve endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress via several mechanisms, including inhibition of protein synthesis and enhancement of protein folding and degradation. There is a controversy over the effect of the UPR on ER protein export. While some investigators suggested that ER export is inhibited during ER stress, others suggested the opposite. In this article, their conflicting studies are analyzed and compared in attempt to solve this controversy. The UPR appears indeed to enhance ER export, possibly via multiple mechanisms. However, another factor, which is the integrity of the folding machinery/environment inside ER, determines whether ER export will appear increased or decreased during experimentation. Also, different methods of stress induction appear to have different effects on ER export. Thus, improvement of ER export may represent a new mechanism by which the UPR alleviates ER stress. This may help researchers to understand how the UPR works inside cells and how to manipulate it to alter cell fate during stress, either to promote cell survival or death. This may open up new approaches for the treatment of ER stress-related diseases.

Membrane Transport at an Organelle Interface in the Early Secretory Pathway: Take Your Coat Off and Stay a While: Evolution of the metazoan early secretory pathway

Most metazoan organisms have evolved a mildly acidified and calcium diminished sorting hub in the early secretory pathway commonly referred to as the Endoplasmic Reticulum-Golgi intermediate compartment (ERGIC). These membranous vesicular-tubular clusters are found tightly juxtaposed to ER subdomains that are competent for the production of COPII-coated transport carriers. In contrast to many unicellular systems, metazoan COPII carriers largely transit just a few hundred nanometers to the ERGIC, prior to COPI-dependent transport on to the cis-Golgi. The mechanisms underlying formation and maintenance of ERGIC membranes are poorly defined. However, recent evidence suggests an important role for Trk-fused gene (TFG) in regulating the integrity of the ER/ERGIC interface. Moreover, in the absence of cytoskeletal elements to scaffold tracks on which COPII carriers might move, TFG appears to promote anterograde cargo transport by locally tethering COPII carriers adjacent to ERGIC membranes. This action, regulated in part by the intrinsically disordered domain of TFG, provides sufficient time for COPII coat disassembly prior to heterotypic membrane fusion and cargo delivery to the ERGIC.

New approaches for solving old problems in neuronal protein trafficking

Fundamental cellular properties are determined by the repertoire and abundance of proteins displayed on the cell surface. As such, the trafficking mechanisms for establishing and maintaining the surface proteome must be tightly regulated for cells to respond appropriately to extracellular cues, yet plastic enough to adapt to ever-changing environments. Not only are the identity and abundance of surface proteins critical, but in many cases, their regulated spatial positioning within surface nanodomains can greatly impact their function. In the context of neuronal cell biology, surface levels and positioning of ion channels and neurotransmitter receptors play essential roles in establishing important properties, including cellular excitability and synaptic strength. Here we review our current understanding of the trafficking pathways that control the abundance and localization of proteins important for synaptic function and plasticity, as well as recent technological advances that are allowing the field to investigate protein trafficking with increasing spatiotemporal precision.

A unique signal sequence of the chemokine receptor CCR7 promotes package into COPII vesicles for efficient receptor trafficking

Chemokine receptors are considered to belong to the group of G protein-coupled receptors that use the first transmembrane domain as signal anchor sequence for membrane insertion instead of a cleavable N-terminal signal sequence. Chemokine recognition is determined by the N-termini of chemokine receptors. Here, we show that the chemokine receptor CCR7, which is essential for directed migration of adaptive immune cells, possesses a 24 amino acids long N-terminal signal sequence that is unique among chemokine receptors. This sequence is cleaved off the mature human and mouse protein. Introducing single point mutations in the hydrophobic core h-region or in the polar C-terminal segment (c-region) of the signal sequence to interfere with its cleavage retained CCR7 in the ER and prevented its surface expression. Furthermore, we demonstrate the correct topology of the 35 amino acids short extracellular N-tail of CCR7 in a deletion mutant lacking the natural signal sequence. This signal sequence deletion mutant of CCR7 is fully functional as it efficiently binds its ligand, elicits chemokine-induced calcium mobilization, and directs cell migration. However, we show that the signal sequence promotes efficient recruitment of the GPCR to ER exit sites, thereby controlling efficient ER to Golgi trafficking of CCR7 on its way to reach the plasma membrane.

Regulation of AMPA receptor trafficking and exit from the endoplasmic reticulum

A fundamental property of the brain is its ability to modify its function in response to its own activity. This ability for self-modification depends to a large extent on synaptic plasticity. It is now appreciated that for excitatory synapses, a significant part of synaptic plasticity depends upon changes in the post synaptic response to glutamate released from nerve terminals. Modification of the post synaptic response depends, in turn, on changes in the abundances of AMPA receptors in the post synaptic membrane. In this review, we consider mechanisms of trafficking of AMPA receptors to and from synapses that take place in the early trafficking stages, starting in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and continuing into the secretory pathway. We consider mechanisms of AMPA receptor assembly in the ER, highlighting the role of protein synthesis and the selective properties of specific AMPA receptor subunits, as well as regulation of ER exit, including the roles of chaperones and accessory proteins and the incorporation of AMPA receptors into COPII vesicles. We consider these processes in the context of the mechanism of mGluR LTD and discuss a compelling role for the dendritic ER membrane that is found proximal to synapses. The review illustrates the important, yet little studied, contribution of the early stages of AMPA receptor trafficking to synaptic plasticity.

Sec16A, a key protein in COPII vesicle formation, regulates the stability and localization of the novel ubiquitin ligase RNF183

We identified 37 ubiquitin ligases containing RING-finger and transmembrane domains. Of these, we found that RNF183 is abundantly expressed in the kidney. RNF183 predominantly localizes to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi, and lysosome. We identified Sec16A, which is involved in coat protein complex II vesicle formation, as an RNF183-interacting protein. RNF183 colocalized with Sec16A and interacted through the central conserved domain (CCD) of Sec16A. Although Sec16A is not a substrate for RNF183, RNF183 was more rapidly degraded by the ER-associated degradation (ERAD) in the absence of Sec16A. Sec16A also stabilized the interacting ubiquitin ligase RNF152, which localizes to the lysosome and has structural similarity with RNF183. These results suggest that Sec16A appears to regulate the protein stability and localization of lysosomal ubiquitin ligases.

Dynamic Glycosylation Governs the Vertebrate COPII Protein Trafficking Pathway

The COPII coat complex, which mediates secretory cargo trafficking from the endoplasmic reticulum, is a key control point for subcellular protein targeting. Because misdirected proteins cannot function, protein sorting by COPII is critical for establishing and maintaining normal cell and tissue homeostasis. Indeed, mutations in COPII genes cause a range of human pathologies, including cranio-lenticulo-sutural dysplasia (CLSD), which is characterized by collagen trafficking defects, craniofacial abnormalities, and skeletal dysmorphology. Detailed knowledge of the COPII pathway is required to understand its role in normal cell physiology and to devise new treatments for disorders in which it is disrupted. However, little is known about how vertebrates dynamically regulate COPII activity in response to developmental, metabolic, or pathological cues. Several COPII proteins are modified by O-linked β-N-acetylglucosamine (O-GlcNAc), a dynamic form of intracellular protein glycosylation, but the biochemical and functional effects of these modifications remain unclear. Here, we use a combination of chemical, biochemical, cellular, and genetic approaches to demonstrate that site-specific O-GlcNAcylation of COPII proteins mediates their protein-protein interactions and modulates cargo secretion. In particular, we show that individual O-GlcNAcylation sites of SEC23A, an essential COPII component, are required for its function in human cells and vertebrate development, because mutation of these sites impairs SEC23A-dependent in vivo collagen trafficking and skeletogenesis in a zebrafish model of CLSD. Our results indicate that O-GlcNAc is a conserved and critical regulatory modification in the vertebrate COPII-dependent trafficking pathway.

Hepatitis C Virus Subverts Human Choline Kinase-α To Bridge Phosphatidylinositol-4-Kinase IIIα (PI4KIIIα) and NS5A and Upregulates PI4KIIIα Activation, Thereby Promoting the Translocation of the Ternary Complex to the Endoplasmic Reticulum for Viral Replication

In this study, we elucidated the mechanism by which human choline kinase-α (hCKα) interacts with nonstructural protein 5A (NS5A) and phosphatidylinositol-4-kinase IIIα (PI4KIIIα), the lipid kinase crucial for maintaining the integrity of virus-induced membranous webs, and modulates hepatitis C virus (HCV) replication. hCKα activity positively modulated phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate (PI4P) levels in HCV-expressing cells, and hCKα-mediated PI4P accumulation was abolished by AL-9, a PI4KIIIα-specific inhibitor. hCKα colocalized with NS5A and PI4KIIIα or PI4P; NS5A expression increased hCKα and PI4KIIIα colocalization; and hCKα formed a ternary complex with PI4KIIIα and NS5A, supporting the functional interplay of hCKα with PI4KIIIα and NS5A. PI4KIIIα inactivation by AL-9 or hCKα inactivation by CK37, a specific hCKα inhibitor, impaired the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) localization and colocalization of these three molecules. Interestingly, hCKα knockdown or inactivation inhibited PI4KIIIα-NS5A binding. In an in vitro PI4KIIIα activity assay, hCKα activity slightly increased PI4KIIIα basal activity but greatly augmented NS5A-induced PI4KIIIα activity, supporting the essential role of ternary complex formation in robust PI4KIIIα activation. Concurring with the upregulation of PI4P production and viral replication, overexpression of active hCKα-R (but not the D288A mutant) restored PI4KIIIα and NS5A translocation to the ER in hCKα stable knockdown cells. Furthermore, active PI4KIIIα overexpression restored PI4P production, PI4KIIIα and NS5A translocation to the ER, and viral replication in CK37-treated cells. Based on our results, hCKα functions as an indispensable regulator that bridges PI4KIIIα and NS5A and potentiates NS5A-stimulated PI4KIIIα activity, which then facilitates the targeting of the ternary complex to the ER for viral replication.

IMPORTANCE The mechanisms by which hCKα activity modulates the transport of the hCKα-NS5A complex to the ER are not understood. In the present study, we investigated how hCKα interacts with PI4KIIIα (a key element that maintains the integrity of the “membranous web” structure) and NS5A to regulate viral replication. We demonstrated that HCV hijacks hCKα to bridge PI4KIIIα and NS5A, forming a ternary complex, which then stimulates PI4KIIIα activity to produce PI4P. Pronounced PI4P synthesis then redirects the translocation of the ternary complex to the ER-derived, PI4P-enriched membrane for assembly of the viral replication complex and viral replication. Our study provides novel insights into the indispensable modulatory role of hCKα in the recruitment of PI4KIIIα to NS5A and in NS5A-stimulated PI4P production and reveals a new perspective for understanding the impact of profound PI4KIIIα activation on the targeting of PI4KIIIα and NS5A to the PI4P-enriched membrane for viral replication complex formation.

Molecular signal networks and regulating mechanisms of the unfolded protein response

Within the cell, several mechanisms exist to maintain homeostasis of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). One of the primary mechanisms is the unfolded protein response (UPR). In this review, we primarily focus on the latest signal webs and regulation mechanisms of the UPR. The relationships among ER stress, apoptosis, and cancer are also discussed. Under the normal state, binding immunoglobulin protein (BiP) interacts with the three sensors (protein kinase RNA-like ER kinase (PERK), activating transcription factor 6 (ATF6), and inositol-requiring enzyme 1α (IRE1α)). Under ER stress, misfolded proteins interact with BiP, resulting in the release of BiP from the sensors. Subsequently, the three sensors dimerize and autophosphorylate to promote the signal cascades of ER stress. ER stress includes a series of positive and negative feedback signals, such as those regulating the stabilization of the sensors/BiP complex, activating and inactivating the sensors by autophosphorylation and dephosphorylation, activating specific transcription factors to enable selective transcription, and augmenting the ability to refold and export. Apart from the three basic pathways, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-VEGF receptor (VEGFR)-phospholipase C-γ (PLCγ)-mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) pathway, induced only in solid tumors, can also activate ATF6 and PERK signal cascades, and IRE1α also can be activated by activated RAC-alpha serine/threonine-protein kinase (AKT). A moderate UPR functions as a pro-survival signal to return the cell to its state of homeostasis. However, persistent ER stress will induce cells to undergo apoptosis in response to increasing reactive oxygen species (ROS), Ca²⁺ in the cytoplasmic matrix, and other apoptosis signal cascades, such as c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), and P38, when cellular damage exceeds the capacity of this adaptive response.

Identification of Cysteine Ubiquitylation Sites on the Sec23A Protein of the COPII Complex Required for Vesicle Formation from the ER

BACKGROUND

COPII is a multiprotein complex that surrounds carrier vesicles budding from the Endoplasmic Reticulum and allows the recruitment of secretory proteins. The Sec23a protein plays a crucial role in the regulation of the dynamics of COPII formation ensuring the proper function of the secretory pathway.

OBJECTIVE

Since few evidences suggest that ubiquitylation could have a role in the COPII regulation, the present study was aimed to establish whether the Sec23a component of the vesicular envelope COPII could be ubiquitylated.

METHOD

Sec23a ubiquitylation was revealed by co-immunoprecipitation experiments. Recombinant Sec23a was gel-purified and analyzed by mass spectrometry subjected to trypsin proteolysis. Signature peptides were identified by the presence of Gly-Gly remnants from the C-terminus of the ubiquitin attached to the amino acid residues of the substrate. Recombinant Sec23a proteins bearing mutations in the ubiquitylation sites were used to evaluate the effect of ubiquitylation in the formation of COPII.

RESULTS

We identified two cysteine ubiquitylation sites showed at position 432 and 449 of the Sec23a protein sequence. Interestingly, we revealed that the amino acid residues of Sec23a joined to ubiquitin were cysteine instead of the conventional lysine residues. This unconventional ubiquitylation consists of the addition of one single ubiquitin moiety that is not required for Sec23a degradation. Immunofluorescence results showed that Sec23a ubiquitylation might influence COPII formation by modulating Sec23a interaction with the ER membrane. Presumably, this regulation could occur throughout continual ubiquitylation/de-ubiquityliation cycles.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest a novel regulatory mechanism for the Sec23a function that could be crucial in several pathophysiological events known to alter COPII recycling.