Focal cerebral ischemia in rats: effects of induced hypertension, during reperfusion, on CBF

Association of Early Blood Pressure Levels and Outcomes in Ischemic Stroke Treated With Intravenous Thrombolysis: A Prospective Cohort Study

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Current guidelines for acute ischemic stroke (AIS) treatment recommend a lenient upper blood pressure (BP) threshold of 185/110 mmHg. However, stricter BP control has been reported to improve prognosis. This study aims to identify the optimal BP range following thrombolysis.

METHODS

This observational study included 340 AIS patients treated with rt-PA thrombolysis at the First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University from December 2017 to December 2021. BP levels 24 h after thrombolysis were analyzed to determine their association with clinical outcomes. BP parameters included mean BP, variability (standard deviation (SD)), and decreased magnitudes. The primary outcome was the 90-day modified Rankin Scale (mRS) scores.

RESULTS

Higher mean systolic BP (SBP) was associated with poorer outcomes, with adjusted odds ratios (aORs) of 1.25 (95% CI, 1.03-1.51), 1.23 (1.01-1.49), and 1.25 (1.02-1.52) per 10 mmHg increase within 0-2 h, 2-6 h, and 6-24 h post-thrombolysis, respectively, but not for BP variability and decrease magnitudes. Significant improvements in outcomes were observed when the mean SBP was maintained within the range of 120-140 mmHg during both the 0-2 and 2-6 h periods, with aORs of 0.12 (95% CI, 0.02-0.75) and 0.19 (0.04-0.82), respectively. Larger decreases in SBP within 6 h post-thrombolysis were associated with a lower risk of intracerebral hemorrhage. These findings were consistent across subgroups and sensitivity analyses.

CONCLUSIONS

Achieving sustained low SBP levels (120-140 mmHg within the first 6 h) over 24 h is linked to better outcomes in thrombolyzed AIS patients.

Safety and efficacy of intensive systolic blood pressure lowering after successful endovascular therapy: a post hoc analysis of the BP TARGET trial

BACKGROUND

The Safety and Efficacy of Intensive Blood Pressure Lowering after Successful Endovascular Therapy in Acute Ischaemic Stroke (BP TARGET) trial demonstrated no benefit from intensive systolic blood pressure (SBP) treatment after successful reperfusion with endovascular therapy. However, it remains unknown if the response to blood pressure treatment is modified by other factors.

OBJECTIVE

To carry out a post hoc analysis of the BP TARGET trial data to determine if the response to blood pressure treatment is modified by factors such as age, history of hypertension, recanalization status, location of occlusion, diabetes, hyperglycemia, or pretreatment with intravenous thrombolysis.

METHODS

This is a post hoc analysis of the BP TARGET trial. Patients were divided into groups based on age, diabetes, blood glucose, site of occlusion, history of hypertension, and pretreatment with intravenous thrombolysis. The primary outcome was any intraparenchymal hemorrhage.

RESULTS

318 patients were included. Diabetes modified the treatment effect on favorable functional outcome (Pheteogenity=0.041). There was a trend towards benefit from intensive SBP treatment in diabetic patients (OR=2.81; 95% CI 0.88 to 8.88; p=0.08) but not in non-diabetic patients (OR=0.75; 95% 0.45 to 126; p 0.28). Age, location of occlusion, admission SBP, pretreatment with intravenous thrombolysis, and history of hypertension did not modify the effect of intensive SBP treatment on any of the outcomes.

CONCLUSION

The effect of SBP lowering treatment was not modified by age, location of occlusion history of hypertension, intravenous thrombolysis, and admission SBP. Diabetes modified the effect of intensive SBP lowering treatment, and there was a trend towards benefit from intensive SBP treatment in diabetic patients. This finding is hypothesis generating and requires further validation.

Magnitude of Blood Pressure Change After Endovascular Therapy and Outcomes: Insight From the BP-TARGET Trial

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

To assess the association between systolic blood pressure change (ΔSBP) at different time intervals after successful reperfusion with radiographic and clinical outcomes.

METHODS

This is a post hoc analysis of the BP-TARGET multicenter trial (Blood Pressure Target in Acute Stroke to Reduce Hemorrhage After Endovascular Therapy). ΔSBP was defined as end of procedure SBP minus mean SBP at different time intervals (15-60 minutes, 1-6 hours, and 6-24 hours postprocedure). The primary outcome was the poor functional outcome (90-day modified Rankin Scale score 3-6).

RESULTS

We included a total of 267 patients (130 in the intensive treatment group). Compared with patients with favorable outcome, patients with poor outcome had lower ΔSBP (less SBP reduction) at all times intervals. After adjusting for potential confounders including baseline SBP, both ΔSBP_15-60M and ΔSBP_6-24H were associated with lower odds of poor outcome (adjusted odds ratio per 5 mm Hg SBP reduction, 0.89 [95% CI, 0.81-0.99], and adjusted odds ratio 0.82 [95% CI, 0.73-0.92], respectively). Concerning safety outcomes, patients with intraparenchymal hemorrhage had lower ΔSBP at all time intervals. ΔSBP_15-60M was associated with lower odds of any intraparenchymal hemorrhage (adjusted odds ratio per 5 mm Hg SBP reduction 0.91 [95% CI, 0.83-0.99]). Conversely, ΔSBP was not associated with mortality or neurological deterioration at any time interval.

CONCLUSIONS

After successful reperfusion, ΔSBP had a linear relationship with poor outcome and the risk of poor outcome was higher with less reduction from the baseline SBP.

REGISTRATION

URL: https://www.clinicaltrials.gov; Unique identifier: NCT03160677.

Magnitude of blood pressure change and clinical outcomes after thrombectomy in stroke caused by large artery occlusion

BACKGROUND

Extremes of both high and low systolic blood pressure (SBP) after mechanical thrombectomy (MT) in large artery occlusion stroke are known predictors of unfavorable outcome. However, the effect of SBP change (∆SBP) during the first 24 h on thrombectomy outcomes remains unclear. We aimed to investigate the association between ∆SBP at different time intervals and thrombectomy outcomes.

METHODS

We analyzed MT-treated patients registered in the SITS International Stroke Thrombectomy Registry from January 1, 2014 to September 3, 2019. Primary outcome was 3-month unfavorable outcome (modified Rankin scale scores 3-6). We defined ∆SBP as the mean SBP of a given time interval after MT (0-2, 2-4, 4-12, 12-24 h) minus admission SBP. Multivariable mixed logistic regression models were used to adjust for known confounders and center as random effect. Subgroup analyses were included to contrast specific subpopulations. Restricted cubic splines were used to model the associations.

RESULTS

The study population consisted of 5835 patients (mean age 70 years, 51% male, median NIHSS 16). Mean ∆SBP was -12.3, -15.7, -17.2, and -16.9 mmHg for the time intervals 0-2, 2-4, 4-12 h, and 12-24 h, respectively. Higher ∆SBP was associated with unfavorable outcome at 0-2 h (odds ratio 1.065, 95% confidence interval 1.014-1.118), 2-4 h (1.140, 1.081-1.203), 4-12 h (1.145, 1.087-1.203), and 12-24 h (1.145, 1.089-1.203), for every increase of 10 mmHg. Restricted cubic spline models suggested that increasing ∆SBP was associated with unfavorable outcome, with higher values showing increased risk of unfavorable outcome.

CONCLUSION

SBP increase after thrombectomy in large artery occlusion stroke is associated with poor functional outcome.

Phenylephrine-induced hypertension during transient middle cerebral artery occlusion alleviates ischemic brain injury in spontaneously hypertensive rats

Arterial hypertension is a major risk factor for ischemic stroke. However, the management of preexisting hypertension is still controversial in the treatment of acute stroke in hypertensive patients. The present study evaluates the influence of preserving hypertension during focal cerebral ischemia on stroke outcome in a rat model of chronic hypertension, the spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). Focal cerebral ischemia was induced by transient (1h) occlusion of the middle cerebral artery, during which mean arterial blood pressure was maintained at normotension (110-120mm Hg, group 1, n=6) or hypertension (160-170mm Hg, group 2, n=6) using phenylephrine. T2-, diffusion- and perfusion-weighted MRI were performed serially at five different time points: before and during ischemia, and at 1, 4 and 7 days after ischemia. Lesion volume and brain edema were estimated from apparent diffusion coefficient maps and T2-weighted images. Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) was measured within and outside the perfusion deficient lesion and in the corresponding regions of the contralesional hemisphere. Neurological deficits were evaluated after reperfusion. Infarct volume, edema, and neurological deficits were significantly reduced in group 2 vs. group 1. In addition, higher values and rapid restoration of rCBF were observed in group 2, while rCBF in both hemispheres was significantly decreased in group 1. Maintaining preexisting hypertension alleviates ischemic brain injury in SHR by increasing collateral circulation to the ischemic region and allowing rapid restoration of rCBF. The data suggest that maintaining preexisting hypertension is a valuable approach to managing hypertensive patients suffering from acute ischemic stroke.

Sleep deprivation attenuates experimental stroke severity in rats

Indirect epidemiological and experimental evidence suggest that the severity of injury during stroke is influenced by prior sleep history. The aim of our study was to test the effect of acute sleep deprivation on early outcome following experimental stroke. Young male Sprague-Dawley rats (n=20) were subjected to focal cerebral ischemia by reversible right middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) for 90 min. In 10 rats, MCAO was performed just after 6-h of total sleep deprivation (TSD) by "gentle handling", whereas the other rats served as controls. Neurological function during the first week after stroke was monitored using a battery of behavioral tests investigating the asymmetry of sensorimotor deficit (tape removal test and cylinder test), bilateral sensorimotor coordination (rotor-rod and Inclined plane) and memory (T-maze and radial maze). Following MCAO, control rats had impaired behavioral performance in all tests. The largest impairment was noted in the tape test where the tape removal time from the left forelimb (contralateral to MCAO) was increased by approximately 10 fold (p<0.01). In contrast, rats subjected to TSD had complete recovery of sensorimotor performance consistent with a 2.5 fold smaller infarct volume and reduced morphological signs of neuronal injury at day 7 after MCAO. Our data suggest that brief TSD induces a neuroprotective response that limits the severity of a subsequent stroke, similar to rapid ischemic preconditioning.

Transient middle cerebral artery occlusion disrupts the forelimb movement representations of rat motor cortex

Infarcts from proximal middle cerebral artery (MCA) stroke can produce impairments in motor function, particularly finger movements in humans and digit flexion in rats. In rats, the extent of neural damage may be limited to basal ganglia structures or may also include portions of the frontal and parietal cortex in severe cases. Although the primary motor cortex (M1) is anatomically spared in proximal MCA occlusion, its functional integrity is suspect because even a small subcortical infarct can damage neural circuits linking M1 with basal ganglia, brainstem, and spinal cord. This motivated the present study to investigate the neurophysiological integrity of M1 after transient proximal MCA occlusion. Rats, preoperatively trained and non-preoperatively trained to reach for food, received extensive reach training/testing with the contralateral-to-lesion paw for several weeks after MCA occlusion. The forelimb movement representations were assayed from the ipsilateral-to-lesion M1 with intracortical microstimulation approximately 10 weeks after MCA occlusion. Digit flexion was impaired during food grasping in rats with relatively small subcortical infarcts and was completely abolished in rats that sustained at least moderate subcortical damage. Corresponding forelimb movement representations ranged from abnormally small to absent. The results suggest that ischemia in subcortical territories of the MCA does not spare the neurophysiological properties of M1 despite its apparent anatomical intactness, probably because of damage sustained to its descending fibers. Thus, M1 dysfunction contributes to the impairments that ensue from proximal MCA occlusion, even when the infarct is limited to subcortical regions.

Mild induced hypertension improves blood flow and oxygen metabolism in transient focal cerebral ischemia

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

In focal ischemic cortex, cerebral blood flow autoregulation is impaired, and perfusion passively follows blood pressure variations. Although it is generally agreed that profound hypotension is harmful in acute stroke, the hemodynamic and metabolic impact of increased blood pressure on the ischemic core and penumbra are less well understood. We, therefore, tested whether pharmacologically induced hypertension improves cerebral blood flow and metabolism and tissue outcome in acute stroke using optical imaging with high spatiotemporal resolution.

METHODS

Cerebral blood flow, oxyhemoglobin, and cerebral metabolic rate of oxygen were measured noninvasively using simultaneous multispectral reflectance imaging and laser speckle flowmetry during distal middle cerebral artery occlusion in mice. Hypertension was induced by phenylephrine infusion starting 10 or 60 minutes after ischemia to raise blood pressure by 30% for the duration of ischemia; control groups received saline infusion.

RESULTS

Mild induced hypertension rapidly increased cerebral blood flow, oxyhemoglobin, and cerebral metabolic rate of oxygen in both the core and penumbra and prevented the expansion of cerebral blood flow deficit during 1 hour distal middle cerebral artery occlusion. Induced hypertension also diminished the deleterious effects of periinfarct depolarizations on cerebral blood flow, oxyhemoglobin, and cerebral metabolic rate of oxygen without altering their frequency. Consistent with this, mild induced hypertension reduced infarct volume by 48% without exacerbating tissue swelling when measured 2 days after 1 hour transient distal middle cerebral artery occlusion.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that mild induced hypertension increases collateral cerebral blood flow and oxygenation and improves cerebral metabolic rate of oxygen in the core and penumbra, supporting its use as bridging therapy in acute ischemic stroke until arterial recanalization is achieved.

Blood pressure augmentation in acute ischemic stroke

Although control of hypertension is established as an important factor in the primary and secondary prevention of stroke, management of blood pressure in the setting of acute ischemic stroke remains controversial. Given limited data, the general consensus is that there is no proven benefit to lowering blood pressure in the first hours to days after acute ischemic stroke. Instead, there is concern that relative hypotension may lead to worsening of cerebral ischemia. For many years, the use of blood pressure augmentation ("induced hypertension") has been studied in animal models and in humans as a means of maintaining or improving perfusion to ischemic brain tissue. This approach is now widely used in neurocritical care units to treat delayed neurological deficits after subarachnoid hemorrhage, but its use in ischemic stroke patients remains anecdotal. This article reviews the cerebral physiology, animal models and human studies of induced hypertension as a treatment for acute ischemic stroke. Although there has not been a large, randomized clinical trial of this treatment, the available clinical data suggests that induced hypertension can result in at least short-term neurological improvement, with an acceptable degree of safety.

The Management of Blood Pressure After Stroke

BACKGROUND

Control of hypertension is a well-established goal of primary prevention of stroke, but management of blood pressure in patients with a previous stroke or in the setting of acute stroke is complicated by the effect blood pressure changes may have on cerebral perfusion.

REVIEW SUMMARY

For patients with previous transient ischemic attack or chronic stroke, blood pressure reduction appears to be a safe and important facet of the secondary prevention of recurrent stroke. Less information is available concerning blood pressure management in acute stroke. Current protocols require strict blood pressure control in patients who are treated with thrombolytic therapy, to reduce the risk of hemorrhagic complications. In patients presenting with acute intracerebral hemorrhage, blood pressure reduction does not appear to cause significant reduction of cerebral blood flow, but at this time there are no studies to determine if there is a clinical benefit of acute blood pressure reduction in these patients. Finally, blood pressure reduction is not routinely recommended in patients with acute ischemic stroke, as it may precipitate further cerebral ischemia. Preliminary studies suggest, in fact, that there may be a role in the future for blood pressure elevation in the treatment of patients with acute ischemic stroke.

CONCLUSIONS

Current data support the use of blood pressure reduction in the secondary prevention of stroke in patients with cerebrovascular disease. In the setting of acute stroke, however, data are limited and blood pressure management must be tailored to the specific clinical situation.

Advances in stroke neuroprotection: hyperoxia and beyond

Refinements in patient selection, improved methods of drug delivery, use of more clinically relevant animal stroke models, and the use of combination therapies that target the entire neurovascular unit make stroke neuroprotection an achievable goal. This article provides an overview of the major mechanisms of neuronal injury and the status of neuroprotective drug trials and reviews emerging strategies for treatment of acute ischemic stroke. Advances in the fields of stem cell transplantation, stroke recovery, molecular neuroimaging, genomics, and proteomics will provide new therapeutic avenues in the near future. These and other developments over the past decade raise expectations that successful stroke neuroprotection is imminent.

Blood pressure management during acute ischaemic stroke

Control of hypertension is a well-established goal of primary stroke prevention. Management of blood pressure in patients during acute ischaemic stroke, however, is complicated by the need to maintain brain perfusion. Lowering blood pressure in the acute setting may avoid the deleterious effects of high blood pressure but may also lead to cerebral hypoperfusion and worsening of the ischaemic stroke. Little information is available from clinical trials concerning optimal blood pressure management in acute stroke. Current protocols of thrombolytic therapy require strict blood pressure control below certain prescribed limits; however, in most acute stroke patients not treated with thrombolysis, blood pressure reduction is not routinely recommended and guidelines for target blood pressures are difficult to justify. Preliminary studies, in fact, suggest that there may be a role for blood pressure elevation in the treatment of some patients with acute ischaemic stroke.

Intraischemic Nitrous Oxide Alters Neither Neurologic Nor Histologic Outcome: A Comparison with Dizocilpine

N-Methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonism contributes to the anesthetic action of nitrous oxide (N(2)O). We examined the effects of the N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonists N(2)O and dizocilpine on outcome from filament occlusion of the middle cerebral artery (MCAO). Rats breathed 70% nitrogen/30% oxygen or 70% N(2)O/30% oxygen during MCAO. A third group breathed 70% nitrogen/30% oxygen and was given dizocilpine (0.25 mg/kg IV). After 75 min of MCAO, the rats recovered for 3 or 14 days. Pericranial temperature was maintained at 37.5 degrees C +/- 0.2 degrees C during ischemia and for 20 h postischemia. N(2)O did not alter neurologic scores at 3 days (N(2)O, 21 +/- 6; nitrogen, 22 +/- 8; P = 0.95; 0 = normal; 48 = maximal deficit; mean +/- sd; n = 15) or 14 days (N(2)O, 13 +/- 6; nitrogen, 12 +/- 6; P = 0.93; n = 15-16) postischemia. N(2)O had no effect on infarct size at 3 days (N(2)O, 162 +/- 45 mm(3); nitrogen, 162 +/- 61 mm(3); P > 0.99) or 14 days (N(2)O, 147 +/- 56 mm(3); nitrogen, 151 +/- 62 mm(3); P = 0.99) postischemia. Dizocilpine treatment caused smaller infarcts (3 days: 66 +/- 49 mm(3), P < 0.0001 versus nitrogen; 14 days: 84 +/- 50 mm(3), P < 0.006 versus nitrogen) and reduced the neurologic deficit (3 days: 10 +/- 10, P = 0.002 versus nitrogen; 14 days: 6 +/- 7, P = 0.006 versus nitrogen). N(2)O (70%) had no effect on either behavioral or histologic outcome from transient focal cerebral ischemia when compared with results in rats breathing 70% nitrogen. These results indicate that normobaric N(2)O does not alter the response of rat brain to a focal ischemic insult.

Effects of induced hypertension on intracranial pressure and flow velocities of the middle cerebral arteries in patients with large hemispheric stroke

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Our aim was to prospectively evaluate the effects of induced arterial hypertension in patients with large ischemic stroke.

METHODS

A total of 47 monitoring sessions in 19 patients with acute, complete, or subtotal middle cerebral artery (MCA) territory stroke were performed. Intracranial pressure (ICP) was monitored using a parenchymal catheter. Mean arterial blood pressure (MAP), ICP, and peak mean flow velocity of the middle cerebral arteries (V(m)MCA) were continuously recorded. Patients with acute ICP crises were excluded. After obtaining baseline values, MAP was raised by an infusion of norepinephrine to reach an MAP increase of at least 10 mm Hg. After MAP had reached a peak plateau level, the norepinephrine infusion was stopped.

RESULTS

Baseline MAP was 83.6+/-1.6 mm Hg and rose to 108.9+/-2.0 mm Hg after infusion of norepinephrine. ICP slightly increased from 11.6+/-0.9 mm Hg to 11.8+/-0.9 mm Hg (P<0.05). Cerebral perfusion pressure rose from baseline 72.2+/-2 mm Hg to 97+/-1 mm Hg (P<0.0001). V(m)MCA was already higher on the affected side during baseline measurements. At maximum MAP levels, V(m)MCA rose by 25.5+/-5.5 cm/s on the affected side and by 8.6+/-1.6 cm/s on the contralateral side.

CONCLUSIONS

In patients with large hemispheric stroke without an acute ICP crisis, induced hypertension enhances cerebral perfusion pressure and augments the V(m)MCA(s), more so on the affected side. The ICP slightly increases; however, this is probably not clinically significant.

Induced hypertension improves regional blood flow and protects against infarction during focal ischemia: time course of changes in blood flow measured by laser Doppler imaging

OBJECTIVE

To characterize changes in regional blood flow (rCBF) during and after a period of arterial occlusion and determine the effect on rCBF and on the extent of infarction when the mean arterial blood pressure is increased during the period of occlusion.

METHODS

rCBF in the middle cerebral artery (MCA) territory of rabbits was monitored using laser Doppler perfusion imaging before, during, and after a 1- or 2-hour period of MCA occlusion, and the size of the infarction was assessed by 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolamine chloride staining after 2 hours of reperfusion. Test animals, the mean arterial blood pressure of which was increased by 65 mm Hg with intravenous phenylephrine during the ischemia, were compared with control animals that remained normotensive. The laser Doppler perfusion imager (Lisca Developments Co., Linköping, Sweden) scanned a 3-cm2 area of cortex with a resolution of 4 mm2 every 15 minutes.

RESULTS

MCA occlusion reduced rCBF to 71 +/- 2% of the control level (n = 24, P < 0.001). Hypertension (HTN) restored rCBF to 84 +/- 3% of the control level (n = 12, P < 0.01), but the HTN-induced improvement diminished with time, so that after 1 hour, there was no longer a significant difference between hypertensive and normotensive animals. HTN during the MCA occlusion caused a 97% reduction in infarct size (P < 0.05) in the animals subjected to 1 hour of occlusion but caused only a 45% reduction (P approximately 0.1) in the animals subjected to 2 hours of occlusion.

CONCLUSION

This study supports the use of HTN to minimize ischemic injury from short intervals of major intracranial vessel occlusion but fails to demonstrate protection when HTN is maintained during occlusions of more than 1 hour.

Pharmacological elevation of blood pressure in acute stroke. Clinical effects and safety

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Lowering of blood pressure can adversely affect ischemic symptoms in acute stroke. The aim of our study was to determine whether induced hypertension in stroke is safe and to examine its effects on neurological deficits in patients presenting with acute cerebral ischemia.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed all patients admitted to our neurological intensive care unit with the diagnosis of ischemic stroke over a 2.5-year period. Thirty-three patients were not given a pressor agent (Ph- group), while 30 were treated with phenylephrine (Ph+ group) in an attempt to improve cerebral perfusion.

RESULTS

Baseline characteristics showed few differences between the Ph+ and Ph- groups. Intracerebral hemorrhage, brain edema, cardiac morbidity, and mortality were not increased in the Ph+ group. In 10 of 30 Ph+ patients, a systolic blood pressure threshold was identified below which ischemic deficits worsened and above which deficits improved. The mean threshold was 156 mm Hg (range, 120 to 190 mm Hg). The mean number of stenotic/occluded cerebral arteries was greater in those Ph+ patients with an identified clinical blood pressure threshold (mean, 2.1 per patient) than in Ph+ patients without a threshold (mean, 1.2 per patient; P < .05).

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest that careful use of phenylephrine induced hypertension is not associated with an increase in morbidity or mortality in acute stroke. Although based on a retrospective analysis of clinical practice, this report suggests that a subset of patients, particularly those with multiple stenosis of cerebral arteries, may improve neurologically upon elevation of the blood pressure.

Duration threshold of induced hypertension on cerebral blood flow, energy metabolism, and edema after transient forebrain ischemia in gerbils

We have investigated whether there is a duration threshold for the effects of phenylephrine-induced hypertension on CBF, brain energy metabolism, and cerebral parenchymal specific gravity (SG) following transient forebrain ischemia in gerbils. Sixty gerbils were randomly assigned to one of the four treatment groups: one control group and three groups subjected to an increase of 25 mm Hg in MABP induced by treatment, 30 min after reperfusion, with phenylephrine for 15 min, 30 min, or 60 min. The local CBF was measured continuously, and the SG was evaluated 120 min after reperfusion. Sequential changes in brain energy metabolism, as shown by the ratio of phosphocreatine to inorganic phosphate (Pi), the beta-ATP/Pi ratio, and intracellular pH, were also measured. The 15-min induced hypertension regimen was most suited to the recovery of brain energy metabolism, which was associated with an increase in local CBF and a decrease in cerebral edema. These results demonstrate that a suitable duration can be chosen to optimize the beneficial effects of phenylephrine-induced hypertension on ischemic brain injury following transient forebrain ischemia.

Proximal branching patterns of middle cerebral artery (MCA) in rats and their influence on the infarct size produced by MCA occlusion

The branching patterns of the proximal middle cerebral artery (MCA) and their influence on the infarct size following MCA occlusion in rats were studied. In the proximal part from the level of the olfactory tract, the MCA most often presented one surface branch extending anteriorly, with a variable number of surface branches extending posteriorly. We classified the branching patterns of the posteriorly extending surface branches as follows: Type 1 (57.5%), one prominent proximal surface branch; Type 2 (30.2%), no prominent branch but two or more small surface branches; and Type 3 (12.3%), no surface branches with a visible junction with the MCA but surface branches probably arising from the internal carotid artery at the origin of the MCA. When the proximal surface branches (especially that in Type 1) remained uncoagulated, the infarct size in both the cortex and striatum was significantly reduced compared with that when coagulation was proximal to the most proximal surface branch. The reduction of cortical and striatal infarct sizes was particularly prominent in the posterior portion. To increase the infarct size and reduce variability, it is suggested that the MCA trunk should be coagulated from the origin to the rhinal fissure including the surface branches.

Graded hypotension and MCA occlusion duration: effect in transient focal ischemia

The first 2 h of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) are likely critical in determining the final outcome in ischemic stroke. To study this early postischemic period, male Wistar rats (n = 161) were subjected to right MCAO with closely spaced step variations in both duration of MCAO and blood pressure (BP), using the intraluminal suture technique. Quantitative neuropathology was performed at 25 coronal planes of the brain after 1-week survival. Atrophy was measured as the difference between the two hemispheres and was added to cortical and striatal necrosis to obtain total tissue loss. Damage consistently increased monotonically with increasing duration of occlusion only when infarct size was expressed as percentage of the contralateral hemisphere, but not when expressed as mm3, because of variable tissue size. The results showed that already at 1 week, the quantity of tissue loss due to resorption and transsynaptic effects approached the quantity of geographically traceable necrosis in cortex and striatum. Minimum brain damage (5%) occurred after 60 min at a BP of 80 mm Hg, with almost no cortical necrosis. Damage was extremely sensitive to hypotension and MCAO duration. At a BP of 40 mm Hg, 60 min of MCAO produced 25% damage, accelerating every 20 min during the 2-h period studied. At BP 80 mm Hg, 120 min of MCAO produced the same damage as only 80 min of MCAO at BP 60 mm Hg. At 60-, 80-, 100-, and 120-min duration of MCAO, infarct size was significantly reduced with increasing BP.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Reperfusion-induced injury to the blood-brain barrier after middle cerebral artery occlusion in rats

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The integrity of the blood-brain barrier may play an important pathophysiological role during postischemic reperfusion. To determine the factors that lead to exacerbation of brain injury by reperfusion, we investigated changes in cerebral blood flow, blood-brain barrier permeability, edema formation, and infarction in permanent or temporary middle cerebral artery occlusion in rats and studied the relation between local cerebral blood flow and blood-brain barrier disruption.

METHODS

Middle cerebral artery occlusion was performed with the rat suture model, allowing either permanent (6 hours) or temporary occlusion (3 hours of occlusion and 3 hours of reperfusion). We measured brain water, ion contents, and infarct volumes and determined cerebral blood flow using laser Doppler flowmetry and blood-brain barrier permeability with [3H] alpha-aminoisobutyric acid.

RESULTS

During occlusion, cerebral blood flow was reduced to 7% to 15% (permanent) and 10% to 17% (temporary) of the baseline. During 3 hours of reperfusion, it returned to 47% to 80% (lateral cortex) and 78% to 98% (medial cortex) of the baseline. Compared with the contralateral hemisphere, the water content in the ischemic area increased in both permanent and temporary groups (P < .05, P < .01). Both infarct volume and blood-brain barrier disruption were greater in the reperfusion group compared with the permanent occlusion group (P < .05). Blood-brain barrier disruption correlated with cerebral blood flow during reperfusion (P < .05).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings demonstrate that brain infarct and blood-brain barrier disruption are exacerbated after reperfusion in this model of focal ischemia. Blood-brain barrier disruption may relate to the degree of cerebral blood flow recovery. Thus, although early reperfusion in focal ischemia may preserve penumbra tissue, late reperfusion may increase the tissue injury.

Effects of viscosity and oxygen content on cerebral blood flow in ischemic and normal rat brain

The mechanism of hemodilution-induced increases in cerebral blood flow (CBF) was investigated. Hemodilution was achieved with a molecular hemoglobin solution (DCLHb) and albumin which have similar viscosities but different oxygen carrying capacities. Part A: CBF was assessed in rats after one of the following regimens: (1) control-hematocrit not manipulated, (2) 30/Alb-hematocrit decreased to 30% with albumin, (3) 30/DCLHb-hematocrit decreased to 30% with DCLHb, or (4) 16/Alb/DCLHb-hematocrit decreased to 30% with albumin and then 16% with DCLHb. For viscosity matched groups (30/Alb and 30/DCLHb), CBF was greater in animals with decreased oxygen content (30/Alb); while in oxygen content matched groups (30/Alb and 16/Alb/DCLHb), CBF was greater in animals with decreased viscosity (16/Alb/DCLHb) (p < 0.05). Part B: Middle cerebral artery occlusion was performed, hemodilution achieved as in Part A, and CBF determined. For viscosity matched groups (30/Alb and 30/DCLHb), CBF was less in rats with decreased oxygen content (30/Alb); while in oxygen content matched groups (30/Alb and 16/Alb/DCLHb), CBF was greater in animals with decreased viscosity (16/Alb/DCLHb) (p < 0.05). This data supports the premise, that in normal brain, both viscosity and oxygen content effect CBF; while in ischemic brain, a decrease in viscosity but not oxygen content increases CBF.

Focal cerebral ischemia in rats: effect of hemodilution with alpha-alpha cross-linked hemoglobin on CBF

Hemodilution has had limited success as a treatment of cerebral ischemia. When using a nonoxygen binding fluid, the therapeutic efficacy of hemodilution-induced increases in CBF are offset by concomitant decreases in oxygen content. The effect of hemodilution, with diaspirin alpha-alpha cross-linked hemoglobin (DCLHb), on CBF during middle cerebral artery occlusion was assessed. Rats were hemodiluted to one of the following hematocrits (Hct): (a) 44/Hct, (b) 37/Hct, (c) 30/Hct, (d) 23/Hct, (e) 16/Hct, or (f) 9/Hct. After 10 min of ischemia, CBF was determined with 14C-iodoantipyrine. Coronal brain sections were evaluated for areas with a CBF of 0-10 and 11-20 ml 100 g-1 min-1. In addition, oxygen delivery was calculated. In the center of the ischemic zone, both areas of low CBF were less in the 30/Hct, 23/Hct, and 16/Hct groups compared with the 44/Hct and 37/Hct groups; and both areas were less in the 9/Hct group compared with the other five groups (p < 0.05). For the hemisphere contralateral to occlusion, there was a direct correlation between hematocrit and oxygen delivery. However, for the hemisphere ipsilateral to occlusion, oxygen delivery increased as hematocrit decreased (44/Hct, 8.6 +/- 0.3 vs. 9/Hct, 13.6 +/- 0.4 [mean +/- SD, ml 100 g-1 min-1]). The results of this study support a hypothesis that hemodilution with DCLHb decreases the extent of focal cerebral ischemia.