Initiating delivery room stabilization/resuscitation in very low birth weight (VLBW) infants with an FiO(2) less than 100% is feasible

The Respiratory Management of the Extreme Preterm in the Delivery Room

The fetal-to-neonatal transition poses an extraordinary challenge for extremely low birth weight (ELBW) infants, and postnatal stabilization in the delivery room (DR) remains challenging. The initiation of air respiration and the establishment of a functional residual capacity are essential and often require ventilatory support and oxygen supplementation. In recent years, there has been a tendency towards the soft-landing strategy and, subsequently, non-invasive positive pressure ventilation has been generally recommended by international guidelines as the first option for stabilizing ELBW in the delivery room. On the other hand, supplementation with oxygen is another cornerstone of the postnatal stabilization of ELBW infants. To date, the conundrum concerning the optimal initial inspired fraction of oxygen, target saturations in the first golden minutes, and oxygen titration to achieve desired stability saturation and heart rate values has not yet been solved. Moreover, the retardation of cord clamping together with the initiation of ventilation with the patent cord (physiologic-based cord clamping) have added additional complexity to this puzzle. In the present review, we critically address these relevant topics related to fetal-to-neonatal transitional respiratory physiology, ventilatory stabilization, and oxygenation of ELBW infants in the delivery room based on current evidence and the most recent guidelines for newborn stabilization.

Quality improvement for neonatal resuscitation and delivery room care

Quality improvement has become a foundation of neonatal care. Structured approaches to improvement can standardize practices, improve teamwork, engage families, and improve outcomes. The delivery room presents a unique environment for quality improvement; optimal delivery room care requires advanced preparation, adequately trained providers, and carefully coordinated team dynamics. In this article, we examine quality improvement for neonatal resuscitation. We review the published literature, focusing on reports targeting admission hypothermia, delayed cord clamping, and initial respiratory support. We discuss specific challenges related to delivery room quality improvement, including small numbers, data collection, and lack of benchmarking, and potential strategies to address them including simulation, checklists, and state and national collaboratives. We examine how quality improvement can target equity in delivery room outcomes, and explore the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on delivery room quality of care.

Quality Improvement for Neonatal Resuscitation and Delivery Room Care

Quality improvement has become a foundation of neonatal care. Structured approaches to improvement can standardize practices, improve teamwork, engage families, and improve outcomes. The delivery room presents a unique environment for quality improvement; optimal delivery room care requires advanced preparation, adequately trained providers, and carefully coordinated team dynamics. In this article, we examine quality improvement for neonatal resuscitation. We review the published literature, focusing on reports targeting admission hypothermia, delayed cord clamping, and initial respiratory support. We discuss specific challenges related to delivery room quality improvement, including small numbers, data collection, and lack of benchmarking, and potential strategies to address them including simulation, checklists, and state and national collaboratives. We examine how quality improvement can target equity in delivery room outcomes, and explore the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on delivery room quality of care.

Oxygen Supplementation During Preterm Stabilization and the Relevance of the First 5 min After Birth

Fetal to neonatal transition entails cardiorespiratory, hemodynamic, and metabolic changes coinciding with the switch from placental to airborne respiration with partial pressures of oxygen of 4-5 kPa in utero raising to 8-9 kPa ex utero in few minutes. Preterm infants have immature lung and antioxidant defense system. Very preterm infants (<32 weeks' gestation) frequently require positive pressure ventilation and oxygen to establish lung aeration, a functional residual capacity, and overcome a tendency toward hypoxemia and bradycardia in the first minutes after birth. Recent studies have shown that prolonged bradycardia (heart rate <100 beats per minute) and/or hypoxemia (oxygen saturation <80%) are associated with increased mortality and/or intracranial hemorrhage. However, despite the accumulated evidence, the way in which oxygen should be supplemented in the first minutes after birth still has not yet been clearly established. The initial inspired fraction of oxygen and its adjustment within a safe arterial oxygen saturation range measured by pulse oximetry that avoids hyper-or-hypoxia is still a matter of debate. Herewith, we present a current summary aiming to assist the practical neonatologist who has to aerate the lung and establish an efficacious respiration in very preterm infants in the delivery room.

Oxygen Requirements for Acutely and Critically Ill Patients

Oxygen administration is often assumed to be required for all patients who are acutely or critically ill. However, in many situations, this assumption is not based on evidence. Injured body tissues and cells throughout the body respond both beneficially and adversely to delivery of supplemental oxygen. Available evidence indicates that oxygen administration is not warranted for patients who are not hypoxemic, and hyperoxia may contribute to increased tissue damage and mortality. Nurses must be aware of implications related to oxygen administration for all types of acutely and critically ill patients. These implications include having knowledge of oxygenation processes and pathophysiology; assessing global, tissue, and organ oxygenation status; avoiding either hypoxia or hyperoxia; and creating partnerships with respiratory therapists. Nurses can contribute to patients' oxygen status well-being by being proficient in determining each patient's specific oxygen needs and appropriate oxygen administration.

A Review of Oxygen Physiology and Appropriate Management of Oxygen Levels in Premature Neonates

Background:

Although oxygen is the most widely used therapeutic agent in neonatal care, optimal oxygen management remains uncertain.

Purpose:

We reviewed oxygen physiology and balance, key studies evaluating oxygen saturation targets, and strategies for oxygen use in the neonatal intensive care unit.

Results:

Oxygen is a potent vasodilator involved in the transition at birth to breathing. Supplemental oxygen is administered to reverse/prevent hypoxia; however, excessive oxygen can be toxic owing to the formation of reactive oxygen species. Current neonatal resuscitation guidelines recommend using room air for term infants in need of support, with titration to achieve oxygen saturation levels similar to uncompromised term infants. In premature infants, targeting a higher oxygen saturation range (eg, 91%-95%) may be safer than targeting a lower range (eg, 85%-89%), but more evidence is needed. In combined analyses, lower oxygen saturation levels increased mortality, suggesting that the higher target may be safer, but higher targets are associated with an increased risk of developing disorders of oxidative stress.

Implications for Practice:

Need for supplemental oxygen should be assessed according to the American Heart Association guidelines. If appropriate, oxygen should be administered using room air, with the goal of preventing hypoxia and avoiding hyperoxia. Use of oximeter alarms may help achieve this goal. Pulmonary vasodilators may improve oxygenation and reduce supplemental oxygen requirements.

Implications for Research:

Implementation of wider target ranges for oxygen saturation may be more practical and lead to improved outcomes; however, controlled trials are necessary to determine the impact on mortality and disability.

Reducing hypothermia in preterm infants following delivery

BACKGROUND

Moderate hypothermia (temperature <36°C) at birth is common in premature infants and is associated with increased mortality and morbidity.

METHODS

A multidisciplinary practice plan was implemented to determine in premature infants <35 weeks old whether a multifaceted approach would reduce the number of inborn infants with an admitting axillary temperature <36°C by 20% without increasing exposure to a temperature >37.5°C. The plan included use of occlusive wrap a transwarmer mattress and cap for all infants and maintaining an operating room temperature between 21°C and 23°C. Data were obtained at baseline (n = 66), during phasing in (n = 102), and at full implementation (n = 193).

RESULTS

Infant axillary temperature in the delivery room (DR) increased from 36.1°C ± 0.6°C to 36.2°C ± 0.6°C to 36.6°C ± 0.6°C (P < .001), and admitting temperature increased from 36.0°C ± 0.8°C to 36.3°C ± 0.6°C to 36.7°C ± 0.5°C at baseline, phasing in, and full implementation, respectively (P < .001). The number of infants with temperature <36°C decreased from 55% to 6.2% at baseline versus full implementation (P < .001), and intubation at 24 hours decreased from 39% to 17.6% (P = .005). There was no increase in the number of infants with a temperature >37.5°C over time. The use of occlusive wrap, mattress, and cap increased from 33% to 88% at baseline versus full implementation. Control charts showed significant improvement in DR ambient temperature at baseline versus full implementation.

CONCLUSIONS

The practice plan was associated with a significant increase in DR and admitting axillary infant temperatures and a corresponding decrease in the number of infants with moderate hypothermia. There was an associated reduction in intubation at 24 hours. These positive findings reflect increased compliance with the practice plan.

New concepts in neonatal resuscitation

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

There has been a substantial increase in the number of studies of neonatal resuscitation and it is timely to review the accumulating evidence.

RECENT FINDINGS

There have been major changes in the way that newly born infants are managed in the delivery room. Colour is no longer recommended as a useful indicator of oxygenation or effectiveness of resuscitation. Pulse oximetry provides rapid, continuous and accurate information on both oxygenation and heart rate. Resuscitation of term infants should begin with air, with the provision of blended oxygen to maintain oxygen saturations similar to those of term infants requiring no resuscitation. Positive end-expiratory pressure during initial ventilation aids lung aeration and establishment of functional residual capacity. Respiratory function monitoring allows operators to identify factors adversely affecting ventilation, including leak around the face mask and airway obstruction. Clamping of the umbilical cord should be delayed for at least 1 min for infants not requiring resuscitation.

SUMMARY

The International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation guidelines on the management of newborn infants were updated in 2010 and incorporate much of the newly available evidence. The use of intensive care techniques in the delivery room is promising but requires further evaluation. Monitoring techniques and interventions need to be adapted for use in developing countries.

Evidence for oxygen use in preterm infants

AIM

To review the evidence for optimal oxygen use in preterm infants.

RESULTS

Clinicians have embraced lower saturation targets to minimize retinopathy of prematurity (ROP). Large randomized trials now have shown that while such targets reduce ROP, neonatal mortality is increased significantly.

CONCLUSIONS

Preterm infants should be resuscitated with blended oxygen (30-90%) targeted to avoid hyperoxia. Later, saturation management remains uncertain. Until ongoing trials and follow-up are complete, it is prudent to avoid saturation of 85-89%.

Why are we still using oxygen to resuscitate term infants?

This article summarizes the historical background for the use of oxygen during newborn resuscitation and describes some of the research and the process of changing the previous practice from a high- to a low-oxygen approach. Findings of a recent Cochrane review suggest that more than 100,000 newborn lives might be saved globally each year by changing from 100 to 21% oxygen for newborn resuscitation. This estimate represents one of the largest yields for a simple therapeutic approach to decrease neonatal mortality in the history of pediatric research. Available data also suggest that, for the very low birth weight infant, use of the low-oxygen approach should be considered with the understanding that some of the smallest and sickest preterm neonates will need some level of oxygen supplementation during the first minutes of postnatal life. As more data are needed for the very preterm population, creation of strict guidelines for these infants would be premature at present. However, it can be stated that term and late preterm infants in need of resuscitation should, in general, be started on 21% oxygen, and if resuscitation is not started with 21% oxygen, a blender should be available, enabling the administration of the lowest FiO(2) possible to keep heart rate and SaO(2) within the target range. For extremely low birth weight infants, initial FiO(2) could be between 0.21 and 0.30 and adjusted according to the response in SaO(2) and heart rate.