1
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Whitaker KE, Williams CC, Mowla L, Spilker JS, Toft S, Narayanan D, Pope A, Magdis GE, van Dokkum PG, Akhshik M, Bezanson R, Brammer GB, Leja J, Man A, Nelson EJ, Richard J, Pacifici C, Sharon K, Valentino F. Quenching of star formation from a lack of inflowing gas to galaxies. Nature 2021; 597:485-488. [PMID: 34552255 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-021-03806-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Star formation in half of massive galaxies was quenched by the time the Universe was 3 billion years old1. Very low amounts of molecular gas seem to be responsible for this, at least in some cases2-7, although morphological gas stabilization, shock heating or activity associated with accretion onto a central supermassive black hole are invoked in other cases8-11. Recent studies of quenching by gas depletion have been based on upper limits that are insufficiently sensitive to determine this robustly2-7, or stacked emission with its problems of averaging8,9. Here we report 1.3 mm observations of dust emission from 6 strongly lensed galaxies where star formation has been quenched, with magnifications of up to a factor of 30. Four of the six galaxies are undetected in dust emission, with an estimated upper limit on the dust mass of 0.0001 times the stellar mass, and by proxy (assuming a Milky Way molecular gas-to-dust ratio) 0.01 times the stellar mass in molecular gas. This is two orders of magnitude less molecular gas per unit stellar mass than seen in star forming galaxies at similar redshifts12-14. It remains difficult to extrapolate from these small samples, but these observations establish that gas depletion is responsible for a cessation of star formation in some fraction of high-redshift galaxies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine E Whitaker
- Department of Astronomy, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA. .,Cosmic Dawn Center (DAWN), Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | | | - Lamiya Mowla
- Dunlap Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Justin S Spilker
- Department of Astronomy, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Sune Toft
- Cosmic Dawn Center (DAWN), Copenhagen, Denmark.,Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Desika Narayanan
- Cosmic Dawn Center (DAWN), Copenhagen, Denmark.,Department of Astronomy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Alexandra Pope
- Department of Astronomy, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA
| | - Georgios E Magdis
- Cosmic Dawn Center (DAWN), Copenhagen, Denmark.,Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.,DTU-Space, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | | | - Mohammad Akhshik
- Department of Physics, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
| | - Rachel Bezanson
- Department of Physics and Astronomy and PITT PACC, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Gabriel B Brammer
- Cosmic Dawn Center (DAWN), Copenhagen, Denmark.,Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Joel Leja
- Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA.,Institute for Computational and Data Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA.,Institute for Gravitation and the Cosmos, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Allison Man
- Department of Physics & Astronomy, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Erica J Nelson
- Department of Astrophysical and Planetary Sciences, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Johan Richard
- Université Lyon, Université Lyon 1, ENS de Lyon, CNRS, Centre de Recherche Astrophysique de Lyon UMR5574, Saint-Genis-Laval, France
| | | | - Keren Sharon
- Department of Astronomy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Francesco Valentino
- Cosmic Dawn Center (DAWN), Copenhagen, Denmark.,Niels Bohr Institute, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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2
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Hodge JA, da Cunha E. High-redshift star formation in the Atacama large millimetre/submillimetre array era. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2020; 7:200556. [PMID: 33489252 PMCID: PMC7813222 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.200556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The Atacama Large Millimetre/submillimetre Array (ALMA) is currently in the process of transforming our view of star-forming galaxies in the distant ( z ≳ 1 ) universe. Before ALMA, most of what we knew about dust-obscured star formation in distant galaxies was limited to the brightest submillimetre sources-the so-called submillimetre galaxies (SMGs)-and even the information on those sources was sparse, with resolved (i.e. sub-galactic) observations of the obscured star formation and gas reservoirs typically restricted to the most extreme and/or strongly lensed sources. Starting with the beginning of early science operations in 2011, the last 9 years of ALMA observations have ushered in a new era for studies of high-redshift star formation. With its long baselines, ALMA has allowed observations of distant dust-obscured star formation with angular resolutions comparable to-or even far surpassing-the best current optical telescopes. With its bandwidth and frequency coverage, it has provided an unprecedented look at the associated molecular and atomic gas in these distant galaxies through targeted follow-up and serendipitous detections/blind line scans. Finally, with its leap in sensitivity compared to previous (sub-)millimetre arrays, it has enabled the detection of these powerful dust/gas tracers much further down the luminosity function through both statistical studies of colour/mass-selected galaxy populations and dedicated deep fields. We review the main advances ALMA has helped bring about in our understanding of the dust and gas properties of high-redshift ( z ≳ 1 ) star-forming galaxies during these first 9 years of its science operations, and we highlight the interesting questions that may be answered by ALMA in the years to come.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. A. Hodge
- Leiden Observatory, Leiden University, PO Box 9513, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - E. da Cunha
- International Centre for Radio Astronomy Research, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Western Australia 6009, Australia
- Research School of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2611, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence for All Sky Astrophysics in 3 Dimensions (ASTRO 3D)
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3
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CO and Fine-structure Lines Reveal Low Metallicity in a Stellar-mass-rich Galaxy at z ∼ 1? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019. [DOI: 10.3847/1538-4357/ab3389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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4
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Abstract
Modeling emission lines from the millimeter to the UV and producing synthetic spectra is crucial for a good understanding of observations, yet it is an art filled with hazards. This is the proceedings of “Walking the Line”, a 3-day conference held in 2018 that brought together scientists working on different aspects of emission line simulations, in order to share knowledge and discuss the methodology. Emission lines across the spectrum from the millimeter to the UV were discussed, with most of the focus on the interstellar medium, but also some topics on the circumgalactic medium. The most important quality of a useful model is a good synergy with observations and experiments. Challenges in simulating line emission are identified, some of which are already being worked upon, and others that must be addressed in the future for models to agree with observations. Recent advances in several areas aiming at achieving that synergy are summarized here, from micro-physical to galactic and circum-galactic scale.
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5
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A Model Connecting Galaxy Masses, Star Formation Rates, and Dust Temperatures across Cosmic Time. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.3847/1538-4357/aaa3f0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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6
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7
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Ricci C, Trakhtenbrot B, Koss MJ, Ueda Y, Schawinski K, Oh K, Lamperti I, Mushotzky R, Treister E, Ho LC, Weigel A, Bauer FE, Paltani S, Fabian AC, Xie Y, Gehrels N. The close environments of accreting massive black holes are shaped by radiative feedback. Nature 2017; 549:488-491. [PMID: 28959966 DOI: 10.1038/nature23906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 178] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2017] [Accepted: 08/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The majority of the accreting supermassive black holes in the Universe are obscured by large columns of gas and dust. The location and evolution of this obscuring material have been the subject of intense research in the past decades, and are still debated. A decrease in the covering factor of the circumnuclear material with increasing accretion rates has been found by studies across the electromagnetic spectrum. The origin of this trend may be driven by the increase in the inner radius of the obscuring material with incident luminosity, which arises from the sublimation of dust; by the gravitational potential of the black hole; by radiative feedback; or by the interplay between outflows and inflows. However, the lack of a large, unbiased and complete sample of accreting black holes, with reliable information on gas column density, luminosity and mass, has left the main physical mechanism that regulates obscuration unclear. Here we report a systematic multi-wavelength survey of hard-X-ray-selected black holes that reveals that radiative feedback on dusty gas is the main physical mechanism that regulates the distribution of the circumnuclear material. Our results imply that the bulk of the obscuring dust and gas is located within a few to tens of parsecs of the accreting supermassive black hole (within the sphere of influence of the black hole), and that it can be swept away even at low radiative output rates. The main physical driver of the differences between obscured and unobscured accreting black holes is therefore their mass-normalized accretion rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudio Ricci
- Instituto de Astrofísica, Facultad de Física, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Casilla 306, Santiago 22, Chile.,Chinese Academy of Sciences South America Center for Astronomy and China-Chile Joint Center for Astronomy, Camino El Observatorio 1515, Las Condes, Santiago, Chile.,Kavli Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Benny Trakhtenbrot
- Institute for Astronomy, Department of Physics, ETH Zurich, Wolfgang-Pauli-Strasse 27, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Michael J Koss
- Institute for Astronomy, Department of Physics, ETH Zurich, Wolfgang-Pauli-Strasse 27, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland.,Eureka Scientific Inc., 2452 Delmer Street Suite 100, Oakland, California 94602, USA
| | - Yoshihiro Ueda
- Department of Astronomy, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
| | - Kevin Schawinski
- Institute for Astronomy, Department of Physics, ETH Zurich, Wolfgang-Pauli-Strasse 27, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Kyuseok Oh
- Institute for Astronomy, Department of Physics, ETH Zurich, Wolfgang-Pauli-Strasse 27, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Isabella Lamperti
- Institute for Astronomy, Department of Physics, ETH Zurich, Wolfgang-Pauli-Strasse 27, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Richard Mushotzky
- Department of Astronomy and Joint Space-Science Institute, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA
| | - Ezequiel Treister
- Instituto de Astrofísica, Facultad de Física, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Casilla 306, Santiago 22, Chile
| | - Luis C Ho
- Kavli Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.,Department of Astronomy, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Anna Weigel
- Institute for Astronomy, Department of Physics, ETH Zurich, Wolfgang-Pauli-Strasse 27, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Franz E Bauer
- Instituto de Astrofísica, Facultad de Física, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Casilla 306, Santiago 22, Chile.,Space Science Institute, 4750 Walnut Street, Suite 205, Boulder, Colorado 80301, USA.,Millenium Institute of Astrophysics, Santiago, Chile
| | - Stephane Paltani
- Department of Astronomy, University of Geneva, chemin d'Ecogia 16, CH-1290 Versoix, Switzerland
| | - Andrew C Fabian
- Institute of Astronomy, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0HA, UK
| | - Yanxia Xie
- Kavli Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.,Department of Astronomy, School of Physics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Neil Gehrels
- NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland 20771, USA
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8
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Kimura Y, Tanaka KK, Nozawa T, Takeuchi S, Inatomi Y. Pure iron grains are rare in the universe. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2017; 3:e1601992. [PMID: 28116359 PMCID: PMC5242559 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.1601992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2016] [Accepted: 11/30/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The abundant forms in which the major elements in the universe exist have been determined from numerous astronomical observations and meteoritic analyses. Iron (Fe) is an exception, in that only depletion of gaseous Fe has been detected in the interstellar medium, suggesting that Fe is condensed into a solid, possibly the astronomically invisible metal. To determine the primary form of Fe, we replicated the formation of Fe grains in gaseous ejecta of evolved stars by means of microgravity experiments. We found that the sticking probability for the formation of Fe grains is extremely small; only a few atoms will stick per hundred thousand collisions so that homogeneous nucleation of metallic Fe grains is highly ineffective, even in the Fe-rich ejecta of type Ia supernovae. This implies that most Fe is locked up as grains of Fe compounds or as impurities accreted onto other grains in the interstellar medium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Kimura
- Institute of Low Temperature Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0819, Japan
| | - Kyoko K. Tanaka
- Institute of Low Temperature Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0819, Japan
| | - Takaya Nozawa
- Division of Theoretical Astronomy, National Astronomical Observatory of Japan, Osawa 2-21-1, Mitaka, Tokyo 181-8588, Japan
| | - Shinsuke Takeuchi
- Institute of Space and Astronautical Science, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, 3-1-1 Yoshinodai, Chuo-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa 252-5210, Japan
| | - Yuko Inatomi
- Institute of Space and Astronautical Science, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, 3-1-1 Yoshinodai, Chuo-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa 252-5210, Japan
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9
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Onodera M, Carollo CM, Renzini A, Cappellari M, Mancini C, Arimoto N, Daddi E, Gobat R, Strazzullo V, Tacchella S, Yamada Y. THE AGES, METALLICITIES, AND ELEMENT ABUNDANCE RATIOS OF MASSIVE QUENCHED GALAXIES AT $z\simeq 1.6$. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.1088/0004-637x/808/2/161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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10
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An extremely young massive clump forming by gravitational collapse in a primordial galaxy. Nature 2015; 521:54-6. [PMID: 25951282 DOI: 10.1038/nature14409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2014] [Accepted: 02/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
When cosmic star formation history reaches a peak (at about redshift z ≈ 2), galaxies vigorously fed by cosmic reservoirs are dominated by gas and contain massive star-forming clumps, which are thought to form by violent gravitational instabilities in highly turbulent gas-rich disks. However, a clump formation event has not yet been observed, and it is debated whether clumps can survive energetic feedback from young stars, and afterwards migrate inwards to form galaxy bulges. Here we report the spatially resolved spectroscopy of a bright off-nuclear emission line region in a galaxy at z = 1.987. Although this region dominates star formation in the galaxy disk, its stellar continuum remains undetected in deep imaging, revealing an extremely young (less than ten million years old) massive clump, forming through the gravitational collapse of more than one billion solar masses of gas. Gas consumption in this young clump is more than tenfold faster than in the host galaxy, displaying high star-formation efficiency during this phase, in agreement with our hydrodynamic simulations. The frequency of older clumps with similar masses, coupled with our initial estimate of their formation rate (about 2.5 per billion years), supports long lifetimes (about 500 million years), favouring models in which clumps survive feedback and grow the bulges of present-day galaxies.
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11
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Papovich C, Labbé I, Quadri R, Tilvi V, Behroozi P, Bell EF, Glazebrook K, Spitler L, Straatman CMS, Tran KV, Cowley M, Davé R, Dekel A, Dickinson M, Ferguson HC, Finkelstein SL, Gawiser E, Inami H, Faber SM, Kacprzak GG, Kawinwanichakij L, Kocevski D, Koekemoer A, Koo DC, Kurczynski P, Lotz JM, Lu Y, Lucas RA, McIntosh D, Mehrtens N, Mobasher B, Monson A, Morrison G, Nanayakkara T, Persson SE, Salmon B, Simons R, Tomczak A, van Dokkum P, Weiner B, Willner SP. ZFOURGE/CANDELS: ON THE EVOLUTION OFM* GALAXY PROGENITORS FROMz= 3 TO 0.5. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.1088/0004-637x/803/1/26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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12
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Genzel R, Tacconi LJ, Lutz D, Saintonge A, Berta S, Magnelli B, Combes F, García-Burillo S, Neri R, Bolatto A, Contini T, Lilly S, Boissier J, Boone F, Bouché N, Bournaud F, Burkert A, Carollo M, Colina L, Cooper MC, Cox P, Feruglio C, Förster Schreiber NM, Freundlich J, Gracia-Carpio J, Juneau S, Kovac K, Lippa M, Naab T, Salome P, Renzini A, Sternberg A, Walter F, Weiner B, Weiss A, Wuyts S. COMBINED CO AND DUST SCALING RELATIONS OF DEPLETION TIME AND MOLECULAR GAS FRACTIONS WITH COSMIC TIME, SPECIFIC STAR-FORMATION RATE, AND STELLAR MASS. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.1088/0004-637x/800/1/20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 418] [Impact Index Per Article: 46.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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13
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Wisnioski E, Förster Schreiber NM, Wuyts S, Wuyts E, Bandara K, Wilman D, Genzel R, Bender R, Davies R, Fossati M, Lang P, Mendel JT, Beifiori A, Brammer G, Chan J, Fabricius M, Fudamoto Y, Kulkarni S, Kurk J, Lutz D, Nelson EJ, Momcheva I, Rosario D, Saglia R, Seitz S, Tacconi LJ, van Dokkum PG. THE KMOS3DSURVEY: DESIGN, FIRST RESULTS, AND THE EVOLUTION OF GALAXY KINEMATICS FROM 0.7 ⩽z⩽ 2.7. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.1088/0004-637x/799/2/209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 338] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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14
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A dust-obscured massive maximum-starburst galaxy at a redshift of 6.34. Nature 2013; 496:329-33. [DOI: 10.1038/nature12050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 421] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2012] [Accepted: 02/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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15
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Abstract
A source of interstellar dust that plays a crucial role in the formation of stars and the evolution of galaxies may have been discovered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher F McKee
- Department of Physics, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.
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16
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Capak PL, Riechers D, Scoville NZ, Carilli C, Cox P, Neri R, Robertson B, Salvato M, Schinnerer E, Yan L, Wilson GW, Yun M, Civano F, Elvis M, Karim A, Mobasher B, Staguhn JG. A massive protocluster of galaxies at a redshift of z ≈ 5.3. Nature 2011; 470:233-5. [PMID: 21228776 DOI: 10.1038/nature09681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 220] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2010] [Accepted: 11/16/2010] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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17
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Cresci G, Mannucci F, Maiolino R, Marconi A, Gnerucci A, Magrini L. Gas accretion as the origin of chemical abundance gradients in distant galaxies. Nature 2010; 467:811-3. [DOI: 10.1038/nature09451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2010] [Accepted: 08/20/2010] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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18
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Blain A. Less greedy galaxies gulp gas. Nature 2010; 463:745-6. [DOI: 10.1038/463745a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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