Nanoparticle therapeutics: an emerging treatment modality for cancer

Amphiphilic hydroxyethyl starch-based nanoparticles carrying linoleic acid modified berberine inhibit the expression of krasv12 oncogene in zebrafish

Cancer is one of the most lethal diseases all over the world. Despite that many drugs have been developed for cancer therapy, they still suffer from various limitations including poor treating efficacy, toxicity to normal human cells, and the emergence of multidrug resistance. In this study, the amphiphilic LHES polymers were prepared using hydroxyethyl starch (HES) and linoleic acid as starting materials. The content and substitution degree of linoleic acid groups in LHES polymers were analyzed. The LHES polymers were used for fabricating LHES-B nanoparticles carrying a linoleic acid modified berberine derivative (L-BBR). The LHES-B nanoparticles showed high drug loading efficiency (29%) and could quickly release L-BBR under acidic pH condition (pH = 4.5). Biological investigations revealed that LHES-B nanoparticles significantly inhibited the proliferation of HepG2 cells and exhibited higher cytotoxicity than L-BBR. In a transgenic Tg(fabp10:rtTA2s-M2; TRE2:EGFP-krasv12) zebrafish model, LHES-B nanoparticles obviously inhibited the expression of krasv12 oncogene. These results indicated that LHES carriers could improve the anticancer activity of L-BBR, and the synthesized LHES-B nanoparticles showed great potential as anticancer drug.

Nano-based drug delivery systems in hepatocellular carcinoma

The high recurrence rate of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and poor prognosis after medical treatment reflects the necessity to improve the current chemotherapy protocols, particularly drug delivery methods. Development of targeted and efficient drug delivery systems (DDSs), in all active, passive and stimuli-responsive forms for selective delivery of therapeutic drugs to the tumour site has been extended to improve efficacy and reduce the severe side effects. Recent advances in nanotechnology offer promising breakthroughs in the diagnosis, treatment and monitoring of cancer cells. In this review, the specific design of DDSs based on the different nano-particles and their surface engineering is discussed. In addition, the innovative clinical studies in which nano-based DDS was used in the treatment of HCC were highlighted.

Preparation of chitosan-hyaluronic acid microcapsules and its dynamic release behavior analysis in a 3D-printed microchannel system: Exploration and verification

This research focuses on the challenges of efficiently constructing drug carriers and evaluating their dynamic release in vitro simulation. By using pickering emulsion and layer-by-layer self-assembly methods. The microcapsules had tea tree oil as the core material, SiO2 nanoparticles as stabilizers, and chitosan and hyaluronic acid as shell materials. The microencapsulation mechanism, as well as the effects of core-shell mass ratio and stirring, were discussed. Specifically, a dynamic circulation simulation microchannel system was designed and manufactured based on 3D printing technology. In this simulation system, the release rate of microcapsules is accelerated and the trend changes, with its behavior aligning with the Boltzmann model. The study demonstrates the advantages of self-assembled inorganic-organic drug-loaded microcapsules in terms of controllable fabrication and ease of functional modification, and shows the potential of 3D printed cyclic microchannel systems in terms of operability and simulation fidelity in drug and physiological analysis.

Protein nanoparticles as drug delivery systems for cancer theranostics

Protein-based nanoparticles have garnered significant attention in theranostic applications due to their superior biocompatibility, exceptional biodegradability and ease of functionality. Compared to other nanocarriers, protein-based nanoparticles offer additional advantages, including biofunctionality and precise molecular recognition abilities, which make them highly effective in navigating complex biological environments. Moreover, proteins can serve as powerful tools with self-assembling structures and reagents that enhance cell penetration. And their derivation from abundant renewable sources and ability to degrade into harmless amino acids further enhance their suitability for biomedical applications. However, protein-based nanoparticles have so far not realized their full potential. In this review, we summarize recent advances in the use of protein nanoparticles in tumor diagnosis and treatment and outline typical methods for preparing protein nanoparticles. The review of protein nanoparticles may provide useful new insights into the development of biomaterial fabrication.

Chiral silver nanoparticles with surface-anchored L(D)-Cys exhibit dissimilar biological characteristics in vitro but not in vivo

This work investigated the influence of surface chirality on cellular internalization, cytotoxicity, and tissue distribution of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs). D-cysteine and L-cysteine are chiral forms of the amino acid cysteine. These enantiomers exhibit distinct spatial arrangements, with D-cysteine having a different configuration from L-cysteine. This structural dissimilarity can lead to variations in how these forms interact with biological systems, potentially impacting their cytotoxic responses. Four distinct types of AgNPs were synthesized, each possessing a unique surface coating: pristine AgNPs (pAgNPs), L-cysteine coated AgNPs (AgNPs@L-Cys), D-cysteine coated AgNPs (AgNPs@D-Cys), and racemic AgNPs coated with both L-Cys and D-Cys (AgNPs@L/D-Cys). We found chiral-dependent cytotoxicity of AgNPs on J774A.1 cells. Specifically, AgNPs@L-Cys exhibited the highest toxicity, and AgNPs@D-Cys exhibited the lowest toxicity. Meanwhile, the cellular uptake of the AgNPs correlated nicely with their cytotoxicity, with AgNPs@L-Cys being internalized to the greatest extent while AgNPs@D-Cys displays the least internalization. Scavenger receptors and clathrin predominantly mediate the cellular internalization of these AgNPs. Strikingly, the dissimilar cellular internalization and cytotoxicity of AgNPs with different chirality were eliminated upon protein corona coverage. Notably, following intravenous injection in mice, these four types of AgNPs showed similar patterns among various organs due to the inevitable protein adsorption in the bloodstream. These findings underscored the pivotal role of surface chirality in governing the biological interactions and toxicity of AgNPs.

Ursodeoxycholic acid loaded dual-modified graphene oxide nanocomposite alleviates cholestatic liver injury through inhibiting hepatocyte apoptosis

Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) is the preferred treatment for various types of cholestasis, however, its effectiveness is limited because of its insolubility in water. We used polyethylene glycol (PEG) and cationic polymer polyethylenimine (PEI) to double-modify graphite oxide (PPG) as a drug delivery system. UDCA was successfully loaded onto PPG through intermolecular interactions to form UDCA-PPG nanoparticles. UDCA-PPG nanoparticles not only improve the solubility and dispersibility of UDCA, but also have good biocompatibility and stability, which significantly improve the delivery rate of UDCA. The results indicated that UDCA-PPG significantly reduced ROS levels, promoted cell proliferation, protected mitochondrial membrane potential, reduced DNA damage and reduced apoptosis in the DCA-induced cell model. In a mouse cholestasis model established by bile duct ligation (BDL), UDCA-PPG improved liver necrosis, fibrosis, and mitochondrial damage and reduced serum ALT and AST levels, which were superior to those in the UDCA-treated group. UDCA-PPG reduced the expression of the apoptosis-related proteins, Caspase-3 and Bax, increased the expression of Bcl-2, and reduced the expression of the oxidative stress-related proteins, NQO and HO-1, as well as the autophagy-related proteins LC3, p62 and p-p62. Therefore, UDCA-PPG can enhance the therapeutic effect of UDCA in cholestasis, by significantly improving drug dispersibility and stability, extending circulation time in vivo, promoting absorption, decreasing ROS levels, enhancing autophagy flow and inhibiting apoptosis via the Bcl-2/Bax signaling pathway.

Regulation of CTLs/Tregs via Highly Stable and Ultrasound-Responsive Cerasomal Nano-Modulators for Enhanced Colorectal Cancer Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy is showing good potential for colorectal cancer therapy, however, low responsive rates and severe immune-related drug side effects still hamper its therapeutic effectiveness. Herein, a highly stable cerasomal nano-modulator (DMC@P-Cs) with ultrasound (US)-controlled drug delivery capability for selective sonodynamic-immunotherapy is fabricated. DMC@P-Cs' lipid bilayer is self-assembled from cerasome-forming lipid (CFL), pyrophaeophorbid conjugated lipid (PL), and phospholipids containing unsaturated chemical bonds (DOPC), resulting in US-responsive lipid shell. Demethylcantharidin (DMC) as an immunotherapy adjuvant is loaded in the hydrophilic core of DMC@P-Cs. With US irradiation, reactive oxygen species (ROS) can be effectively generated from DMC@P-Cs, which can not only kill tumor cells for inducing immunogenic cell death (ICD), but also oxidize unsaturated phospholipids-DOPC to change the permeability of the lipid bilayers and facilitate controlled release of DMC, thus resulting in down-regulation of regulatory T cells (Tregs) and amplification of anti-tumor immune responses. After intravenous injection, DMC@P-Cs can efficiently accumulate at the tumor site, and local US treatment resulted in 94.73% tumor inhibition rate. In addition, there is no detectable systemic toxicity. Therefore, this study provides a highly stable and US-controllable smart delivery system to achieve synergistical sonodynamic-immunotherapy for enhanced colorectal cancer therapy.

Tris-assisted one-step fabrication of functional carbon dots for specific folate receptor positive-expressed cancer cell imaging

Specific staining of cancer cells is momentous for cancer research. Nanoprobe with multivalent recognition is emerging as powerful tools for bioimaging, but the nonspecific cell uptake and complex functional modification procedures are still obstacles for specific detection and convenient synthesis. Carbon dots (CDs) with an intrinsic targeting ability, excellent optical properties and biocompatibility acquired from an efficient one-step fabrication procedure were urgently desired in specific cancer cells visualization. Herein, inspired by the interrelationships between interface and biomolecular mechanisms, we suggested that it was possible to construct CDs with the desired characteristics for folate receptor (FR) positive-expressed cancer cell imaging via rich hydroxyl groups Tris-assisted one-step hydrothermal treatment of folate acid (FA) and l-Arginine (L-Arg) precursors. The prepared small-sized F-CDs were equipped with abundant hydroxyl, pterin and negative charge surface, and possessed environmental friendliness, outstanding photostability and biocompatibility. Moreover, F-CDs had an intrinsic FR positive-expressed cancer cell targeting ability without any post-modification of the ligands. Rich hydroxyl groups play a vital role in endowing the optical properties and biological effects of F-CDs. F-CDs could be used as a promising candidate for FR-expressed cancer cell labeling and tracking. In addition, the caveolae-mediated endocytosis pathway of F-CDs was ascertained. More importantly, experimental results confirmed that the combination of physicochemical properties may provide an efficient strategy to overcome non-specific cell uptake interactions for cell labeling. Our strategy put forward a promising alternative to design fluorescent CDs for extensive chemical and biomedical applications.

Physiological principles underlying the kidney targeting of renal nanomedicines

Kidney disease affects more than 10% of the global population and is associated with considerable morbidity and mortality, highlighting a need for new therapeutic options. Engineered nanoparticles for the treatment of kidney diseases (renal nanomedicines) represent one such option, enabling the delivery of targeted therapeutics to specific regions of the kidney. Although they are underdeveloped compared with nanomedicines for diseases such as cancer, findings from preclinical studies suggest that renal nanomedicines may hold promise. However, the physiological principles that govern the in vivo transport and interactions of renal nanomedicines differ from those of cancer nanomedicines, and thus a comprehensive understanding of these principles is needed to design nanomedicines that effectively and specifically target the kidney while ensuring biosafety in their future clinical translation. Herein, we summarize the current understanding of factors that influence the glomerular filtration, tubular uptake, tubular secretion and extrusion of nanoparticles, including size and charge dependency, and the role of specific transporters and processes such as endocytosis. We also describe how the transport and uptake of nanoparticles is altered by kidney disease and discuss strategic approaches by which nanoparticles may be harnessed for the detection and treatment of a variety of kidney diseases.

Recent advances in liposome-based targeted cancer therapy

Nano-drug delivery systems have opened new pathways for tumor treatment by overcoming some of the limitations of conventional drugs, such as physiological degradation, short half-life, and rapid release. Liposomes are promising nanocarrier systems due to their biocompatibility, low toxicity, and high inclusivity, as well as their enhanced drug bioavailability. Various strategies for active targeting of liposomal formulations have been investigated to achieve the highest drug efficacy. This review aims to summarize current developments in novel liposomal formulations, particularly ligand-targeted liposomes (such as folate, transferrin, hyaluronic acid, antibodies, aptamer, and peptide, etc.) used for the therapy of various cancers and provide an insight on the challenges and future of liposomes for scientists and pharmaceutical companies.

The recent advancements in protein nanoparticles for immunotherapy

In recent years, the advancement of nanoparticle-based immunotherapy has introduced an innovative strategy for combatting diseases. Compared with other types of nanoparticles, protein nanoparticles have obtained substantial attention owing to their remarkable biocompatibility, biodegradability, ease of modification, and finely designed spatial structures. Nature provides several protein nanoparticle platforms, including viral capsids, ferritin, and albumin, which hold significant potential for disease treatment. These naturally occurring protein nanoparticles not only serve as effective drug delivery platforms but also augment antigen delivery and targeting capabilities through techniques like genetic modification and covalent conjugation. Motivated by nature's originality and driven by progress in computational methodologies, scientists have crafted numerous protein nanoparticles with intricate assembly structures, showing significant potential in the development of multivalent vaccines. Consequently, both naturally occurring and de novo designed protein nanoparticles are anticipated to enhance the effectiveness of immunotherapy. This review consolidates the advancements in protein nanoparticles for immunotherapy across diseases including cancer and other diseases like influenza, pneumonia, and hepatitis.

Tackling breast cancer with gold nanoparticles: twinning synthesis and particle engineering with efficacy

The World Health Organization identifies breast cancer as the most prevalent cancer despite predominantly affecting women. Surgery, hormonal therapy, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy are the current treatment modalities. Site-directed nanotherapeutics, engineered with multidimensional functionality are now the frontrunners in breast cancer diagnosis and treatment. Gold nanoparticles with their unique colloidal, optical, quantum, magnetic, mechanical, and electrical properties have become the most valuable weapon in this arsenal. Their advantages include facile modulation of shape and size, a high degree of reproducibility and stability, biocompatibility, and ease of particle engineering to induce multifunctionality. Additionally, the surface plasmon oscillation and high atomic number of gold provide distinct advantages for tailor-made diagnosis, therapy or theranostic applications in breast cancer such as photothermal therapy, radiotherapy, molecular labeling, imaging, and sensing. Although pre-clinical and clinical data are promising for nano-dimensional gold, their clinical translation is hampered by toxicity signs in major organs like the liver, kidneys and spleen. This has instigated global scientific brainstorming to explore feasible particle synthesis and engineering techniques to simultaneously improve the efficacy and versatility and widen the safety window of gold nanoparticles. The present work marks the first study on gold nanoparticle design and maneuvering techniques, elucidating their impact on the pharmacodynamics character and providing a clear-cut scientific roadmap for their fast-track entry into clinical practice.

Unveiling Interactions of Tumor-Targeting Nanoparticles with Lipid Bilayers Using a Titratable Martini Model

pH-responsive nanoparticles are ideal vehicles for drug delivery and are widely used in cell imaging in targeted therapy of cancer, which usually has a weakly acidic microenvironment. In this work, we constructed a titratable molecular model for nanoparticles grafted with ligands of pH-sensitive carboxylic acids and investigated the interactions between the nanoparticles and the lipid bilayer in varying pH environments. We mainly examined the effect of the grafting density of the pH-sensitive ligands of the nanoparticles on the interactions of the nanoparticles with the lipid bilayer. The results show that the nanoparticles can penetrate the lipid bilayer only when the pH value is lower than a critical value, which can be readily modulated to the specific pH value of the tumor microenvironment by changing the ligand grafting density. This work provides some insights into modulating the interactions between the pH-sensitive nanoparticles and cellular membranes to realize targeted drug delivery to tumors based on their specific pH environment.

Critical parameters to standardize the size and concentration determination of nanomaterials by nanoparticle tracking analysis

The size and concentration are critical for the diagnostic and therapeutic applications of nanomaterials but the accurate measurement remains challenging. Nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) is widely used for size and concentration determination. However, highly repeatable standard operating procedures (SOPs) are absent. We adopted the "search-evaluate-test" strategy to standardize the measurement by searching the critical parameters. The particles per frame are linearly proportional to the sample concentration and the measured results are more accurate and repeatable when the concentration is 108-109 particles/ml. The optimal detection threshold is around 5. The optimal camera level is such that it allows clear observation of particles without diffractive rings and overexposure. The optimal speed is ≤ 50 in AU and ∼ 10 μl/min in flow rate. We then evaluated the protocol using polydisperse polystyrene particles and we found that NTA could discriminate particles in bimodal mixtures with high size resolution but the performance on multimodal mixtures is not as good as that of resistive pulse sensing (RPS). We further analyzed the polystyrene particles, SiO2 particles, and biological samples by NTA following the SOPs. The size and concentration measured by NTA differentially varies to those determined by RPS and transmission electron microscopy.

Facile synthesis of an acid-responsive cinnamaldehyde-pendant polycarbonate for enhancing the anticancer efficacy of etoposide via glutathione depletion

Glutathione (GSH) is an important antioxidant that maintains cellular redox homeostasis and significantly contributes to resistance against various chemotherapeutic agents. To address the challenge of GSH-mediated drug resistance in etoposide (ETS), we developed a facile synthetic method to prepare a biocompatible acid-responsive polycarbonate (PEG-PCA) containing cinnamaldehyde (CA), a potent GSH-depleting agent, as a side chain using nontoxic raw materials. This polymer self-assembled in aqueous solutions to form nanoparticles (ETS@PCA) that encapsulated ETS, enhancing its water solubility and enabling tumor-targeted delivery. In vitro studies demonstrated that ETS@PCA could respond to the acidic tumor microenvironment, releasing CA to rapidly deplete GSH levels. Consequently, ETS@PCA exhibited superior cytotoxicity compared to free ETS. Furthermore, in vivo experiments corroborated the enhanced tumor inhibitory effects of ETS@PCA.

Dual FGFR-targeting and pH-activatable ruthenium-peptide conjugates for targeted therapy of breast cancer

Dysregulation of Fibroblast Growth Factor Receptors (FGFRs) signaling has been associated with breast cancer, yet employing FGFR-targeted delivery systems to improve the efficacy of cytotoxic agents is still sparsely exploited. Herein, we report four new bi-functional ruthenium-peptide conjugates (RuPCs) with FGFR-targeting and pH-dependent releasing abilities, envisioning the selective delivery of cytotoxic Ru complexes to FGFR(+)-breast cancer cells, and controlled activation at the acidic tumoral microenvironment. The antiproliferative potential of the RuPCs and free Ru complexes was evaluated in four breast cancer cell lines with different FGFR expression levels (SKBR-3, MDA-MB-134-VI, MCF-7, and MDA-MB-231) and in human dermal fibroblasts (HDF), at pH 6.8 and pH 7.4 aimed at mimicking the tumor microenvironment and normal tissues/bloodstream pHs, respectively. The RuPCs showed higher cytotoxicity in cells with higher level of FGFR expression at acidic pH. Additionally, RuPCs showed up to 6-fold higher activity in the FGFR(+) breast cancer lines compared to the normal cell line. The release profile of Ru complexes from RuPCs corroborates the antiproliferative effects observed. Remarkably, the cytotoxicity and releasing ability of RuPCs were shown to be strongly dependent on the conjugation of the peptide position in the Ru complex. Complementary molecular dynamic simulations and computational calculations were performed to help interpret these findings at the molecular level. In summary, we identified a lead bi-functional RuPC that holds strong potential as a FGFR-targeted chemotherapeutic agent.

Coarse-grained modeling and dynamics tracking of nanoparticles diffusion in human gut mucus

The gastrointestinal (GI) tract's mucus layer serves as a critical barrier and a mediator in drug nanoparticle delivery. The mucus layer's diverse molecular structures and spatial complexity complicates the mechanistic study of the diffusion dynamics of particulate materials. In response, we developed a bi-component coarse-grained mucus model, specifically tailored for the colorectal cancer environment, that contained the two most abundant glycoproteins in GI mucus: Muc2 and Muc5AC. This model demonstrated the effects of molecular composition and concentration on mucus pore size, a key determinant in the permeability of nanoparticles. Using this computational model, we investigated the diffusion rate of polyethylene glycol (PEG) coated nanoparticles, a widely used muco-penetrating nanoparticle. We validated our model with experimentally characterized mucus pore sizes and the diffusional coefficients of PEG-coated nanoparticles in the mucus collected from cultured human colorectal goblet cells. Machine learning fingerprints were then employed to provide a mechanistic understanding of nanoparticle diffusional behavior. We found that larger nanoparticles tended to be trapped in mucus over longer durations but exhibited more ballistic diffusion over shorter time spans. Through these discoveries, our model provides a promising platform to study pharmacokinetics in the GI mucus layer.

Sub-100 nm carriers by template polymerization for drug delivery applications

Size-controlled drug delivery systems (DDSs) have gained significant attention in the field of pharmaceutical sciences due to their potential to enhance drug efficacy, minimize side effects, and improve patient compliance. This review provides a concise overview of the preparation method, advancements, and applications of size-controlled drug delivery systems focusing on the sub-100 nm size DDSs. The importance of tailoring the size for achieving therapeutic goals is briefly mentioned. We highlight the concept of "template polymerization", a well-established method in covalent polymerization that offers precise control over molecular weight. We demonstrate the utility of this approach in crafting a monolayer of a polymer around biomolecule templates such as DNA, RNA, and protein, achieving the generation of DDSs with sizes ranging from several tens of nanometers. A few representative examples of small-size DDSs that share a conceptual similarity to "template polymerization" are also discussed. This review concludes by briefly discussing the drug release behaviors and the future prospects of "template polymerization" for the development of innovative size-controlled drug delivery systems, which promise to optimize drug delivery precision, efficacy, and safety.

Navigating the future: Microfluidics charting new routes in drug delivery

Microfluidics has emerged as a transformative force in the field of drug delivery, offering innovative avenues to produce a diverse range of nano drug delivery systems. Thanks to its precise manipulation of small fluid volumes and its exceptional command over the physicochemical characteristics of nanoparticles, this technology is notably able to enhance the pharmacokinetics of drugs. It has initiated a revolutionary phase in the domain of drug delivery, presenting a multitude of compelling advantages when it comes to developing nanocarriers tailored for the delivery of poorly soluble medications. These advantages represent a substantial departure from conventional drug delivery methodologies, marking a paradigm shift in pharmaceutical research and development. Furthermore, microfluidic platformsmay be strategically devised to facilitate targeted drug delivery with the objective of enhancing the localized bioavailability of pharmaceutical substances. In this paper, we have comprehensively investigated a range of significant microfluidic techniques used in the production of nanoscale drug delivery systems. This comprehensive review can serve as a valuable reference and offer insightful guidance for the development and optimization of numerous microfluidics-fabricated nanocarriers.

Postpolymerization Modification of Poly(2-vinyl-4,4-dimethyl azlactone) as a Versatile Strategy for Drug Conjugation and Stimuli-Responsive Release

Postpolymerization modification of highly defined "scaffold" polymers is a promising approach for overcoming the existing limitations of controlled radical polymerization such as batch-to-batch inconsistencies, accessibility to different monomers, and compatibility with harsh synthesis conditions. Using multiple physicochemical characterization techniques, we demonstrate that poly(2-vinyl-4,4-dimethyl azlactone) (PVDMA) scaffolds can be efficiently modified with a coumarin derivative, doxorubicin, and camptothecin small molecule drugs. Subsequently, we show that coumarin-modified PVDMA has a high cellular biocompatibility and that coumarin derivatives are liberated from the polymer in the intracellular environment for cytosolic accumulation. In addition, we report the pharmacokinetics, biodistribution, and antitumor efficacy of a PVDMA-based polymer for the first time, demonstrating unique accumulation patterns based on the administration route (i.e., intravenous vs oral), efficient tumor uptake, and tumor growth inhibition in 4T1 orthotopic triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) xenografts. This work establishes the utility of PVDMA as a versatile chemical platform for producing polymer-drug conjugates with a tunable, stimuli-responsive delivery.

Tumor microenvironment reprogramming combined with immunogenic enhancement by nanoemulsions potentiates immunotherapy

The combination of immune checkpoint inhibitors and immunogenic cell death (ICD) inducers has become a promising strategy for the treatment of various cancers. However, its efficacy remains unmet because of the dense stroma and defective vasculatures in the tumor microenvironment (TME) that restricts the intratumoral infiltration of cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). Herein, cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs)-targeted nanoemulsions are tailored to combine the ICD induction and the TME reprogramming to sensitize checkpoint blockade immunotherapy. Melittin, as an ICD inducer and an antifibrotic agent, is efficiently encapsulated into the nanoemulsion accompanied by a nitric oxide donor to improve its bioavailability and tumor targeting. The nanoemulsions exhibited dual functionality by directly inducing direct cancer cell death and enhancing the tumoral immunogenicity, while also synergistically reprogramming the TME through reversing the activated CAFs, decreasing collagen deposition and restoring tumor vessels. Consequently, these nanemulsions successfully facilitated the CTLs infiltration and suppressing the recruitment of immunosuppressive cells. A combination of AE-MGNPs and anti-CTLA-4 antibody greatly elicited a striking level of antitumor T-cell response to suppress tumor growth in CAFs-rich colorectal tumor models. Our work emphasized the integration of the ICD induction with simultaneous modulation of the TME to enhance the sensitivity of patients to checkpoint blockade immunotherapy.

Current approaches in smart nano-inspired drug delivery: A narrative review

Background and Aim

The traditional drug delivery approach involves systemic administration of a drug that could be nonspecific in targeting, low on efficacy, and with severe side-effects. To address such challenges, the field of smart drug delivery has emerged aiming at designing and developing delivery systems that can target specific cells, tissues, and organs and have minimal off-target side-effects.

Methods

A literature search was done to collate papers and reports about the currently available various strategies for smart nano-inspired drug delivery. The databases searched were PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar. Based on selection criteria, the most pertinent and recent items were included.

Results

Smart drug delivery is a cutting-edge revolutionary intervention in modern medicines to ensure effective and safe administration of therapeutics to target sites. These hold great promise for targeted and controlled delivery of therapeutic agents to improve the efficacy with reduced side-effects as compared to the conventional drug delivery approaches. Current smart drug delivery approaches include nanoparticles, liposomes, micelles, and hydrogels, each with its own advantages and limitations. The success of these delivery systems lies in engineering and designing them, and optimizing their pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics properties.

Conclusion

Development of drug delivery systems that can get beyond various physiological and clinical barriers, as observed in conventionally administered chemotherapeutics, has been possible through recent advancements. Using multifunctional targeting methodologies, smart drug delivery tries to localize therapy to the target location, reduces cytotoxicity, and improves the therapeutic index. Rapid advancements in research and development in smart drug delivery provide wider and more promising avenues to guarantee a better healthcare system, improve patient outcomes, and achieve higher levels of effective medical interventions like personalized medicine.

Endovascular Drug Delivery

Drug-eluting stents (DES) and balloons revolutionize atherosclerosis treatment by targeting hyperplastic tissue responses through effective local drug delivery strategies. This review examines approved and emerging endovascular devices, discussing drug release mechanisms and their impacts on arterial drug distribution. It emphasizes the crucial role of drug delivery in modern cardiovascular care and highlights how device technologies influence vascular behavior based on lesion morphology. The future holds promise for lesion-specific treatments, particularly in the superficial femoral artery, with recent CE-marked devices showing encouraging results. Exciting strategies and new patents focus on local drug delivery to prevent restenosis, shaping the future of interventional outcomes. In summary, as we navigate the ever-evolving landscape of cardiovascular intervention, it becomes increasingly evident that the future lies in tailoring treatments to the specific characteristics of each lesion. By leveraging cutting-edge technologies and harnessing the potential of localized drug delivery, we stand poised to usher in a new era of precision medicine in vascular intervention.

Gallic Acid-Modified Polyethylenimine-Polypropylene Carbonate-Polyethylenimine Nanoparticles: Synthesis, Characterization, and Anti-Periodontitis Evaluation

The aim of the research was to develop novel gallic acid (GA)-modified amphiphilic nanoparticles of polyethylenimine (PEI)-polypropylene carbonate (PPC)-PEI (PEPE) and comprehensively assess its properties as an antiperiodontitis nanoparticle targeting the Toll-like receptor (TLR). The first step is to evaluate the binding potential of GA to the core trigger receptors TLR2 and TLR4/MD2 for periodontitis using molecular docking techniques. Following this, we conducted NMR, transmission electron microscopy, and dynamic light scattering analyses on the synthesized PEPE nanoparticles. As the final step, we investigated the synthetic results and in vitro antiperiodontitis properties of GA-PEPE nanoparticles. The investigation revealed that GA exhibits potential for targeted binding to TLR2 and the TLR4/MD2 complex. Furthermore, we successfully developed 91.19 nm positively charged PEPE nanoparticles. Spectroscopic analysis indicated the successful synthesis of GA-modified PEPE. Additionally, CCK8 results demonstrated that GA modification significantly reduced the biotoxicity of PEPE. The in vitro antiperiodontitis properties assessment illustrated that 6.25 μM of GA-PEPE nanoparticles significantly reduced the expression of pro-inflammatory factors TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. The GA-PEPE nanoparticles, with their targeted TLR binding capabilities, were found to possess excellent biocompatibility and antiperiodontitis properties. GA-PEPE nanoparticles will provide highly innovative input into the development of anti- periodontitis nanoparticles.

Tailoring Treatment in Cardiovascular Diseases: The Role of Targeted Therapies

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) remain the leading cause of morbidity and mortality around the globe. To address this public health burden, innovative therapeutic agents are being developed to specifically target molecular and genetic markers. Various therapeutic modalities have been implemented, including vaccines, monoclonal or bispecific antibodies, and gene-based therapies. Such drugs precisely target the underlying disease pathophysiology, aiming at notable molecules such as lipid metabolism regulators, proinflammatory cytokines, and growth factors. This review focuses on the latest advancements in different targeted therapies. It provides an insightful overview of the current landscape of targeted cardiovascular therapies, highlighting promising strategies with potential to transform the treatment of CVDs into an era of precision medicine.

Recent trends and advances in novel formulations as an armament in Bcl-2/Bax targeted breast cancer

Breast cancer (BC) remains a significant health burden worldwide, necessitating the development of innovative therapeutic strategies. The B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) family proteins, Bcl-2 and Bax, play a crucial role in regulating apoptosis and thus are promising targets for BC therapy. We focus on the recent advancements in novel formulations that specifically target Bcl-2/Bax pathway to combat BC. It provides an overview on biological functions of Bcl-2/Bax in apoptosis regulation, emphasizing their significance in pathogenesis and progression of the disease while covering the numerous therapeutic approaches aimed at modulating the Bcl-2/Bax pathway, including small-molecule inhibitors, peptides, gene-based therapies and other repurposed drugs harboured onto cutting-edge technologies and nanocarrier systems employed to enhance the targeted delivery of Bcl-2/Bax inhibitors tumor cells. These advanced formulations aim to improve therapeutic efficacy, minimize off-target effects, and overcome drug resistance, offering promising prospects in its treatment. In conclusion, it illuminates the diverse and evolving landscape of novel formulations as an essential armament in targeting these proteins while bridging and unravelling the obscurity of Bcl-2/Bax pathway-targeted drug delivery systems which are presently in their nascent stages of exploration for BC therapy which can benefit researchers, clinicians, and pharmaceutical scientists.

The underlying mechanism and targeted therapy strategy of miRNAs cross-regulating EMT process through multiple signaling pathways in hepatocellular carcinoma

The consistent notion holds that hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) initiation, progression, and clinical treatment failure treatment failure are affected by the accumulation of various genetic and epigenetic alterations. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play an irreplaceable role in a variety of physiological and pathological states. meanwhile, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a crucial biological process that controls the development of HCC. miRNAs regulate the intermediation state of EMTor mesenchymal-epithelial transition (MTE)thereby regulating HCC progression. Notably, miRNAs regulate key HCC-related molecular pathways, including the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, PTEN/PI3K/AKT pathway, TGF-β pathway, and RAS/MAPK pathway. Therefore, we comprehensively reviewed how miRNAs produce EMT effects by multiple signaling pathways and their potential significance in the pathogenesis and treatment response of HCC. emphasizing their molecular pathways and progression in HCC initiation. Additionally, we also pay attention to regulatory mechanisms that are partially independent of signaling pathways. Finally, we summarize and propose miRNA-targeted therapy and diagnosis and defense strategies forHCC. The identification of the mechanism leading to the activation of EMT programs during HCC disease processes also provides a new protocol for the plasticity of distinct cellular phenotypes and possible therapeutic interventions. Consequently, we summarize the latest progress in this direction, with a promising path for further insight into this fast-moving field.

Recent Trends in Nanocarrier-Based Drug Delivery System for Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer remains a significant global health concern, requiring innovative approaches for improved therapeutic outcomes. In recent years, nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems have emerged as promising strategies to address the limitations of conventional cancer chemotherapy. The key trends include utilizing nanoparticles for enhancing drug delivery to prostate cancer cells. Nanoparticles have some advantages such as improved drug solubility, prolonged circulation time, and targeted delivery of drugs. Encapsulation of chemotherapeutic agents within nanoparticles allows for controlled release kinetics, reducing systemic toxicity while maintaining therapeutic efficacy. Additionally, site-specific accumulation within the prostate tumor microenvironment is made possible by the functionalization of nanocarrier with targeted ligands, improving therapeutic effectiveness. This article highlights the basics of prostate cancer, statistics of prostate cancer, mechanism of multidrug resistance, targeting approach, and different types of nanocarrier used for the treatment of prostate cancer. It also includes the applications of nanocarriers for the treatment of prostate cancer and clinical trial studies to validate the safety and efficacy of the innovative drug delivery systems. The article focused on developing nanocarrier-based drug delivery systems, with the goal of translating these advancements into clinical applications in the future.

Erythrocytes Nanoparticle Delivery: A Boon for Targeting Tumor

Although nanoparticles (NPs) have many advantages as drug delivery systems, their poor stability in circulation, premature drug release, and nonspecific uptake in non-target organs have prompted biomimetic approaches to camouflage nano vehicles using natural cell membranes. Among them, which are extensively studied in erythrocytes, are the most abundant circulating blood cells. They are specially used for biomimetic coating on artificial NPs due to their excellent properties of good biocompatibility, biodegradability, non-immunogenicity, and long-term blood circulation. Erythrocyte-mimicking nanoparticles (EM-NPs) are prepared by combining nanoparticle cores with naturally derived erythrocyte (red blood cell or RBC) membranes. Compared with conventional nanosystems, EM-NPs hold the preferable characteristics of prolonged blood circulation time and immune evasion. In this review, the biomimetic platform of erythrocyte membrane-coated NPs is described in various aspects, with particular focus placed on the coating mechanism, preparation methods, characterization method, and recent advances in the biomedical applications of EM-NPs concerning cancer and targeted delivery.

Intelligent Size-Switchable Iron Carbide-Based Nanocapsules with Cascade Delivery Capacity for Hyperthermia-Enhanced Deep Tumor Ferroptosis

The ferroptosis pathway is recognized as an essential strategy for tumor treatment. However, killing tumor cells in deep tumor regions with ferroptosis agents is still challenging because of distinct size requirements for intratumoral accumulation and deep tumor penetration. Herein, intelligent nanocapsules with size-switchable capability that responds to acid/hyperthermia stimulation to achieve deep tumor ferroptosis are developed. These nanocapsules are constructed using poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid and Pluronic F127 as carrier materials, with Au-Fe2 C Janus nanoparticles serving as photothermal and ferroptosis agents, and sorafenib (SRF) as the ferroptosis enhancer. The PFP@Au-Fe2 C-SRF nanocapsules, designed with an appropriate size, exhibit superior intratumoral accumulation compared to free Au-Fe2 C nanoparticles, as evidenced by photoacoustic and magnetic resonance imaging. These nanocapsules can degrade within the acidic tumor microenvironment when subjected to laser irradiation, releasing free Au-Fe2 C nanoparticles. This enables them to penetrate deep into tumor regions and disrupt intracellular redox balance. Under the guidance of imaging, these PFP@Au-Fe2 C-SRF nanocapsules effectively inhibit tumor growth when exposed to laser irradiation, capitalizing on the synergistic photothermal and ferroptosis effects. This study presents an intelligent formulation based on iron carbide for achieving deep tumor ferroptosis through size-switchable cascade delivery, thereby advancing the comprehension of ferroptosis in the context of tumor theranostics.

Spray-dried pH-sensitive chitosan microparticles loaded with Mycobacterium bovis BCG intended for supporting treatment of Helicobacter pylori infection

Gram-negative spiral-shaped Helicobacter pylori (Hp) bacteria induce the development of different gastric disorders. The growing resistance of Hp to antibiotics prompts to search for new therapeutic formulations. A promising candidate is Mycobacterium bovis BCG (BCG) with immunomodulatory properties. Biodegradable mucoadhesive chitosan is a good carrier for delivering BCG mycobacteria to the gastric mucosal environment. This study aimed to show whether BCG bacilli are able to increase the phagocytic activity of Cavia porcellus-guinea pig macrophages derived from the bone marrow towards fluorescently labeled Escherichia coli. Furthermore, to encapsulate live BCG bacilli, in spray-dried chitosan microparticles (CHI-MPs), and assess the pH-dependent release of mycobacteria in pH conditions mimicking gastric (acidic) or gut (alkaline) milieu. Microparticles (MPs) were made of chitosan and coated with Pluronic F-127-(Plur) or N-Acetyl-D-Glucosamine-(GlcNAc) to increase the MPs resistance to low pH or to increase anti-Hp effect, respectively. Spray-drying method was used for microencapsulation of live BCG. The biosafety of tested CHI-MPs has been confirmed using cell models in vitro and the model of guinea pig in vivo. The CHI-MPs loaded with BCG released live mycobacteria at pH 3.0 (CHI-GlcNAc-MPs) or pH 8.0. (CHI-Plur-MPs). The CHI-MPs loaded with live BCG can be used for per os inoculation of Cavia porcellus to check the effectiveness of delivered mycobacteria in increasing anti-H. pylori host response.

Cell membrane-coated biomimetic nanomedicines: productive cancer theranostic tools

As the second-leading cause of human death, cancer has drawn attention in the area of biomedical research and therapy from all around the world. Certainly, the development of nanotechnology has made it possible for nanoparticles (NPs) to be used as a carrier for delivery systems in the treatment of tumors. This is a biomimetic approach established to craft remedial strategies comprising NPs cloaked with membrane obtained from various natural cells like blood cells, bacterial cells, cancer cells, etc. Here we conduct an in-depth exploration of cell membrane-coated NPs (CMNPs) and their extensive array of applications including drug delivery, vaccination, phototherapy, immunotherapy, MRI imaging, PET imaging, multimodal imaging, gene therapy and a combination of photothermal and chemotherapy. This review article provides a thorough summary of the most recent developments in the use of CMNPs for the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. It critically assesses the state of research while recognizing significant accomplishments and innovations. Additionally, it indicates ongoing problems in clinical translation and associated queries that warrant deeper research. By doing so, this study encourages creative thinking for future projects in the field of tumor therapy using CMNPs while also educating academics on the present status of CMNP research.

Amphiphilic Block Copolymer Nanostructures as a Tunable Delivery Platform: Perspective and Framework for the Future Drug Product Development

Nanoformulation of active payloads or pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) has always been an area of interest to achieve targeted, sustained, and efficacious delivery. Various delivery platforms have been explored, but loading and delivery of APIs have been challenging because of the chemical and structural properties of these molecules. Polymersomes made from amphiphilic block copolymers (ABCPs) have shown enormous promise as a tunable API delivery platform and confer multifold advantages over lipid-based systems. For example, a COVID booster vaccine comprising polymersomes encapsulating spike protein (ACM-001) has recently completed a Phase I clinical trial and provides a case for developing safe drug products based on ABCP delivery platforms. However, several limitations need to be resolved before they can reach their full potential. In this Perspective, we would like to highlight such aspects requiring further development for translating an ABCP-based delivery platform from a proof of concept to a viable commercial product.

Drug-Loaded Biomimetic Carriers for Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Therapy: Advances and Perspective

Chemotherapy remains the mainstay of treatment for the lymphoma patient population, despite its relatively poor therapeutic results, high toxicity, and low specificity. With the advancement of biotechnology, the significance of drug-loading biomimetic materials in the medical field has become increasingly evident, attracting extensive attention from the scientific community and the pharmaceutical industry. Given that they can cater to the particular requirements of lymphoma patients, drug-loading biomimetic materials have recently become a potent and promising delivery approach for various applications. This review mainly reviews the recent advancements in the treatment of tumors with biological drug carrier-loaded drugs, outlines the mechanisms of lymphoma development and the diverse treatment modalities currently available, and discusses the merits and limitations of biological drug carriers. What is more, the practical application of biocarriers in tumors is explored by providing examples, and the possibility of loading such organisms with antilymphoma drugs for the treatment of lymphoma is conceived.

Organic nanomotors: emerging versatile nanobots

Artificial nanomotors are self-propelled nanometer-scaled machines that are capable of converting external energy into mechanical motion. A significant progress on artificial nanomotors over the last decades has unlocked the potential of carrying out manipulatable transport and cargo delivery missions with enhanced efficiencies owing to their stimulus-responsive autonomous movement in various complex environments, allowing for future advances in a large range of applications. Emergent kinetic systems with programmable energy-converting mechanisms that are capable of powering the nanomotors are attracting increasing attention. This review highlights the most-recent representative examples of synthetic organic nanomotors having self-propelled motion exclusively powered by organic molecule- or their aggregate-based kinetic systems. The stimulus-responsive propulsion mechanism, motion behaviors, and performance in antitumor therapy of organic nanomotors developed so far are illustrated. A future perspective on the development of organic nanomotors is also proposed. With continuous innovation, it is believed that the scope and possible achievements in practical applications of organic nanomotors with diversified organic kinetic systems will expand.

Y-Shaped Backbone-Rigidified DNA Tiles for the Construction of Supersized Nondeformable Tetrahedrons for Precise Cancer Therapies

While engineered DNA nanoframeworks have been extensively exploited for delivery of diagnostic and therapeutic regents, DNA tiling-based DNA frameworks amenable to applications in living systems lag much behind. In this contribution, by developing a Y-shaped backbone-based DNA tiling technique, we assemble Y-shaped backbone-rigidified supersized DNA tetrahedrons (RDT) with 100% efficiency for precisely targeted tumor therapy. RDT displays unparalleled rigidness and unmatched resistance to nuclease degradation so that it almost does not deform under the force exerted by the atomic force microscopy tip, and the residual amount is not less than 90% upon incubating in biological media for 24 h, displaying at least 11.6 times enhanced degradation resistance. Without any targeting ligand, RDT enters the cancer cell in a targeted manner, and internalization specificity is up to 15.8. Moreover, 77% of RDT objects remain intact within living cells for 14 h. The drug loading content of RDT is improved by 4-8 times, and RDT almost 100% eliminates the unintended drug leakage in a stimulated physiological medium. Once systemically administrated into HeLa tumor-bearing mouse models, doxorubicin-loaded RDTs preferentially accumulate in tumor sites and efficiently suppress tumor growth without detectable off-target toxicity. The Y-DNA tiling technique offers invaluable insights into the development of structural DNA nanotechnology for precise medicine.

Overcoming Chemotherapy Resistance in Metastatic Cancer: A Comprehensive Review

The management of metastatic cancer is complicated by chemotherapy resistance. This manuscript provides a comprehensive academic review of strategies to overcome chemotherapy resistance in metastatic cancer. The manuscript presents background information on chemotherapy resistance in metastatic cancer cells, highlighting its clinical significance and the current challenges associated with using chemotherapy to treat metastatic cancer. The manuscript delves into the molecular mechanisms underlying chemotherapy resistance in subsequent sections. It discusses the genetic alterations, mutations, and epigenetic modifications that contribute to the development of resistance. Additionally, the role of altered drug metabolism and efflux mechanisms, as well as the activation of survival pathways and evasion of cell death, are explored in detail. The strategies to overcome chemotherapy resistance are thoroughly examined, covering various approaches that have shown promise. These include combination therapy approaches, targeted therapies, immunotherapeutic strategies, and the repurposing of existing drugs. Each strategy is discussed in terms of its rationale and potential effectiveness. Strategies for early detection and monitoring of chemotherapy drug resistance, rational drug design vis-a-vis personalized medicine approaches, the role of predictive biomarkers in guiding treatment decisions, and the importance of lifestyle modifications and supportive therapies in improving treatment outcomes are discussed. Lastly, the manuscript outlines the clinical implications of the discussed strategies. It provides insights into ongoing clinical trials and emerging therapies that address chemotherapy resistance in metastatic cancer cells. The manuscript also explores the challenges and opportunities in translating laboratory findings into clinical practice and identifies potential future directions and novel therapeutic avenues. This comprehensive review provides a detailed analysis of strategies to overcome chemotherapy resistance in metastatic cancer. It emphasizes the importance of understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying resistance and presents a range of approaches for addressing this critical issue in treating metastatic cancer.

Harnessing Nanotechnology: Emerging Strategies for Multiple Myeloma Therapy

Advances in nanotechnology have provided novel avenues for the diagnosis and treatment of multiple myeloma (MM), a hematological malignancy characterized by the clonal proliferation of plasma cells in the bone marrow. This review elucidates the potential of nanotechnology to revolutionize myeloma therapy, focusing on nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems, nanoscale imaging techniques, and nano-immunotherapy. Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems offer enhanced drug targeting, reduced systemic toxicity, and improved therapeutic efficacy. We discuss the latest developments in nanocarriers, such as liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, and inorganic nanoparticles, used for the delivery of chemotherapeutic agents, siRNA, and miRNA in MM treatment. We delve into nanoscale imaging techniques which provide spatial multi-omic data, offering a holistic view of the tumor microenvironment. This spatial resolution can help decipher the complex interplay between cancer cells and their surrounding environment, facilitating the development of highly targeted therapies. Lastly, we explore the burgeoning field of nano-immunotherapy, which employs nanoparticles to modulate the immune system for myeloma treatment. Specifically, we consider how nanoparticles can be used to deliver tumor antigens to antigen-presenting cells, thus enhancing the body's immune response against myeloma cells. In conclusion, nanotechnology holds great promise for improving the prognosis and quality of life of MM patients. However, several challenges remain, including the need for further preclinical and clinical trials to assess the safety and efficacy of these emerging strategies. Future research should also focus on developing personalized nanomedicine approaches, which could tailor treatments to individual patients based on their genetic and molecular profiles.

Targeted Radium Alpha Therapy in the Era of Nanomedicine: In Vivo Results

Targeted alpha-particle therapy using radionuclides with alpha emission is a rapidly developing area in modern cancer treatment. To selectively deliver alpha-emitting isotopes to tumors, targeting vectors, including monoclonal antibodies, peptides, small molecule inhibitors, or other biomolecules, are attached to them, which ensures specific binding to tumor-related antigens and cell surface receptors. Although earlier studies have already demonstrated the anti-tumor potential of alpha-emitting radium (Ra) isotopes-Radium-223 and Radium-224 (223/224Ra)-in the treatment of skeletal metastases, their inability to complex with target-specific moieties hindered application beyond bone targeting. To exploit the therapeutic gains of Ra across a wider spectrum of cancers, nanoparticles have recently been embraced as carriers to ensure the linkage of 223/224Ra to target-affine vectors. Exemplified by prior findings, Ra was successfully bound to several nano/microparticles, including lanthanum phosphate, nanozeolites, barium sulfate, hydroxyapatite, calcium carbonate, gypsum, celestine, or liposomes. Despite the lengthened tumor retention and the related improvement in the radiotherapeutic effect of 223/224Ra coupled to nanoparticles, the in vivo assessment of the radiolabeled nanoprobes is a prerequisite prior to clinical usage. For this purpose, experimental xenotransplant models of different cancers provide a well-suited scenario. Herein, we summarize the latest achievements with 223/224Ra-doped nanoparticles and related advances in targeted alpha radiotherapy.

The progression of inorganic nanoparticles and natural products for inflammatory bowel disease

There is a growing body of evidence indicating a close association between inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and disrupted intestinal homeostasis. Excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS), along with an increase in M1 proinflammatory macrophage infiltration during the activation of intestinal inflammation, plays a pivotal role in disrupting intestinal homeostasis in IBD. The overabundance of ROS/RNS can cause intestinal tissue damage and the disruption of crucial gut proteins, which ultimately compromises the integrity of the intestinal barrier. The proliferation of M1 macrophages contributes to an exaggerated immune response, further compromising the intestinal immune barrier. Currently, intestinal nanomaterials have gained widespread attention in the context of IBD due to their notable characteristics, including the ability to specifically target regions of interest, clear excess ROS/RNS, and mimic biological enzymes. In this review, we initially elucidated the gut microenvironment in IBD. Subsequently, we delineate therapeutic strategies involving two distinct types of nanomedicine, namely inorganic nanoparticles and natural product nanomaterials. Finally, we present a comprehensive overview of the promising prospects associated with the application of nanomedicine in future clinical settings for the treatment of IBD (graphic abstract). Different classes of nanomedicine are used to treat IBD. This review primarily elucidates the current etiology of inflammatory bowel disease and explores two prominent nanomaterial-based therapeutic approaches. First, it aims to eliminate excessive reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species. Second, they focus on modulating the polarization of inflammatory macrophages and reducing the proportion of pro-inflammatory macrophages. Additionally, this article delves into the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease using inorganic metal nanomaterials and natural product nanomaterials.

Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles Significant Role in Poultry and Novel Toxicological Mechanisms

Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) have involved a lot of consideration owing to their distinctive features. The ZnO NPs can be described as particularly synthesized mineral salts via nanotechnology, varying in size from 1 to 100 nm, while zinc oxide (ZnO), it is an inorganic substrate of zinc (Zn). The Zn is a critical trace element necessary for various biological and physiological processes in the body. Studies have revealed ZnO NPs' efficient immuno-modulatory, growth-promoting, and antimicrobial properties in poultry birds. They offer increased bioavailability as compared to their traditional sources, producing better results in terms of productivity and welfare and consequently reducing ecological harm in the poultry sector. However, they have also been reported for their toxicological effects, which are size, shape, concentration, and exposure route dependent. The investigations done so far have yielded inconsistent results, therefore, a lot of additional studies and research are required to clarify the harmful consequences of ZnO NPs and to bring them to a logical end. This review explores an overview of efficient possible role of ZnO NPs, while comparing them with other nutritional Zn sources, in the poultry industry, primarily as dietary supplements that effect the growth, health, and performance of the birds. In addition to the anti-bacterial mechanisms of ZnO NPs and their promising role as antifungal, and anti-colloidal agent, this paper also covers the toxicological mechanisms of ZnO NPs and their consequent toxicological hazards to vital organs and the reproductive system of poultry birds.

Drug target therapy and emerging clinical relevance of exosomes in meningeal tumors

Meningioma is the most common central nervous system (CNS) tumor. In recent decades, several efforts have been made to eradicate this disease. Surgery and radiotherapy remain the standard treatment options for these tumors. Drug therapy comes to play its role when both surgery and radiotherapy fail to treat the tumor. This mostly happens when the tumors are close to vital brain structures and are nonbenign. Although a wide variety of chemotherapeutic drugs and molecular targeted drugs such as tyrosine kinase inhibitors, alkylating agents, endocrine drugs, interferon, and targeted molecular pathway inhibitors have been studied, the roles of numerous drugs remain unexplored. Recent interest is growing toward studying and engineering exosomes for the treatment of different types of cancer including meningioma. The latest studies have shown the involvement of exosomes in the theragnostic of various cancers such as the lung and pancreas in the form of biomarkers, drug delivery vehicles, and vaccines. Proper attention to this new emerging technology can be a boon in finding the consistent treatment of meningioma.

Application of Nanoparticles for Efficient Delivery of Quercetin in Cancer Cells

Quercetin (Qu, 3,5,7,3', 4'-pentahydroxyflavanone) is a natural polyphenol compound abundantly found in health food or plant-based products. In recent decades, Qu has gained significant attention in the food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutic industries owning to its wide beneficial therapeutic properties such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities. Despite the favorable roles of Qu in cancer therapy due to its numerous impacts on the cell signaling axis, its poor chemical stability and bioavailability, low aqueous solubility as well as short biological half-life have limited its clinical application. Recently, drug delivery systems based on nanotechnology have been developed to overcome such limitations and enhance the Qu biodistribution following administration. Several investigations have indicated that the nano-formulation of Qu enjoys more remarkable anticancer effects than its free form. Furthermore, incorporating Qu in various nano-delivery systems improved its sustained release and stability, extended its circulation time, enhanced its accumulation at target sites, and increased its therapeutic efficiency. The purpose of this study was to provide a comprehensive review of the anticancer properties of various Qu nano-formulation to augment their effects on different malignancies. Various targeting strategies for improving Qu delivery, including nanoliposomes, lipids, polymeric, micelle, and inorganic nanoparticle NPs, have been discussed in this review. The results of the current study illustrated that a combination of appropriate nano encapsulation approaches with tumor-oriented targeting delivery might lead to establishing QU nanoparticles that can be a promising technique for cancer treatment.

An Updated Insight into Phytomolecules and Novel Approaches used in the Management of Breast Cancer

Breast cancer is a widespread condition that kills more women from cancer-related causes than any other type of cancer globally. Women who have estrogen-dependent, initial metastatic breast cancer frequently receive treatment with surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy. They may also get more specialized treatments like tamoxifen or aromatase inhibitors (anastrozole or letrozole). The World Health Organisation reported in 2012 that by 2030, breast cancer will be more common worldwide. There are several phytochemicals, such as isoflavones, coumestans, lignans, and prenylflavonoides. Isoflavones have been shown in studies to prevent the spread of breast cancer and to trigger apoptosis. Targeting BCs in metastatic breast cancer may be made possible by combining well-formulated phytochemicals in nanoparticles or other novel drug delivery agents with currently accepted endocrine and/or conventional chemotherapies. Cell signaling, regulation of cell cycles, oxidative stress action, and inflammation could be positively impacted by phytoconstituents. They have the ability to alter non-coding RNAs, to prevent the proliferation and regeneration of cancer cells. The availability of novel approaches helps in disease targeting, safety, effectiveness and efficacy. The current literature helps to know the available drugs i.e. phytoconstituents or novel drug delivery like nanoparticle, microsphere, micelles, liposomes and neosomes. The literature has been taken from PubMed, Google Scholar, SciFinder, or other internet sites.

Nanomaterials for detection of biomolecules and delivering therapeutic agents in theragnosis: A review

Nanomaterials are emerging facts used to deliver therapeutic agents in living systems. Nanotechnology is used as a compliment by implementing different kinds of nanotechnological applications such as nano-porous structures, functionalized nanomaterials, quantum dots, carbon nanomaterials, and polymeric nanostructures. The applications are in the initial stage, which led to achieving several diagnoses and therapy in clinical practice. This review conveys the importance of nanomaterials in post-genomic employment, which includes the design of immunosensors, immune assays, and drug delivery. In this view, genomics is a molecular tool containing large databases that are useful in choosing an apt molecular inhibitor such as drug, ligand and antibody target in the drug delivery process. This study identifies the expression of genes and proteins in analysis and classification of diseases. Experimentally, the study analyses the design of a disease model. In particular, drug delivery is a boon area to treat cancer. The identified drugs enter different phase trails (Trails I, II, and III). The genomic information conveys more essential entities to the phase I trials and helps to move further for other trails such as trails-II and III. In such cases, the biomarkers play a crucial role by monitoring the unique pathological process. Genetic engineering with recombinant DNA techniques can be employed to develop genetically engineered disease models. Delivering drugs in a specific area is one of the challenging issues achieved using nanoparticles. Therefore, genomics is considered as a vast molecular tool to identify drugs in personalized medicine for cancer therapy.

A Path of Novelty from Nanoparticles to Nanobots: Theragnostic Approach for Targeting Cancer Therapy

Pharmaceutical development of cancer therapeutics is a dynamic area of research. Even after decades of intensive work, cancer continues to be a dreadful disease with an ever-increasing global incidence. The progress of nanotechnology in cancer research has overcome inherent limitations in conventional cancer chemotherapy and fulfilled the need for target-specific drug carriers. Nanotechnology uses the altered patho-physiological microenvironment of malignant cells and offers various advantages like improved solubility, reduced toxicity, prolonged drug circulation with controlled release, circumventing multidrug resistance, and enhanced biodistribution. Early cancer detection has a crucial role in selecting the best drug regime, thus, diagnosis and therapeutics go hand in hand. Furthermore, nanobots are an amazing possibility and promising innovation with numerous significant applications, particularly in fighting cancer and cleaning out blood vessels. Nanobots are tiny robots, ranging in size from 1 to 100 nm. Moreover, the nanobots would work similarly to white blood cells, watching the bloodstream and searching for indications of distress. This review articulates the evolution of various organic and inorganic nanoparticles and nanobots used as therapeutics, along with their pros and cons. It also highlights the shift in diagnostics from conventional methods to more advanced techniques. This rapidly growing domain is providing more space for engineering desired nanoparticles that can show miraculous results in therapeutic and diagnostic trials.

Biosynthesis of Zinc Oxide-Zerumbone (ZnO-Zer) Nanoflakes Towards Evaluating Its Antibacterial and Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)-Dependent Cytotoxic Activity

Being the second most prevalent metal oxide, zinc oxide (ZnO) nanomaterials have been widely studied and found to exhibit promising applications in various domains of biomedicine and agriculture. Considering the enhanced bioactivities displayed by secondary metabolite (SM) derived ZnO nanomaterials, present study was undertaken to evaluate the efficacy of ZnO nanoflake (NF) derived from Zerumbone (Zer), a sesquiterpenoid from Zingiber zerumbet rhizome with diverse pharmacological properties. ZnO NF prepared by homogeneous precipitation method using ZnSO4.7H2O (0.1 M) and NaOH (0.2 M) as precursors with and without the addition of Zer (0.38 mM) were characterized by powder UV-visible spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), FT-IR spectroscopy and Field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) analysis. Optical and physical properties of ZnO-Zer NF were found to match with the typical ZnO nanomaterial properties. XRD analysis revealed reduction in size (15 nm) of the green synthesized ZnO-Zer NF compared to ZnO NF (21 nm). ZnO-Zer NF displayed linear correlation between concentration and antimicrobial activity to Salmonella typhi, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Determination of cytotoxic potential of the synthesized ZnO-Zer NF in cervical cancer cells (HeLa) showed higher cytotoxicity of ZnO-Zer NF (39.32 ± 3.01%) compared to Zer alone (27.02 ± 1.22%). Present study revealing improvement in bioactivity of Zer following conjugation with ZnO NF signifies potential of NF formation in improving therapeutic application of Zer that otherwise displays low solubility limiting its bioavailability.

Ultrasonic Manipulation of Hydrodynamically Driven Microparticles in Vessel Bifurcation: Simulation, Optimization, Experimental Validation, and Potential for Targeted Drug Delivery

Microrobots driven by multiple external power sources have emerged as promising tools for targeted drug and stem cell delivery in tissue regeneration. However, navigating and imaging these devices within a complex colloidal vascular system at a clinical scale is challenging. Ultrasonic actuators have gained interest in the field of non-contact manipulation of micromachines due to their label-free biocompatible nature and safe operation history. This research presents experimentally validated simulation results of ultrasonic actuation using a novel ultrasonic transducer array with a hemispherical arrangement that generates active traveling waves with phase modulation. Blood flow is used as a carrier force while the direction and path are controlled by blocking undesirable paths using a highly focused acoustic field. In the experiments, the microrobot cluster was able to follow a predefined trajectory and reach the target. The microrobot size, maximum radiation pressure, and focus position were optimized for certain blood flow conditions. The outcomes suggest that this acoustic manipulation module has potential applications in targeted tumor therapy.

Current status of Fe-based MOFs in biomedical applications

Recently nanoparticle-based platforms have gained interest as drug delivery systems and diagnostic agents, especially in cancer therapy. With their ability to provide preferential accumulation at target sites, nanocarrier-constructed antitumor drugs can improve therapeutic efficiency and bioavailability. In contrast, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have received increasing academic interest as an outstanding class of coordination polymers that combine porous structures with high drug loading via temperature modulation and ligand interactions, overcoming the drawbacks of conventional drug carriers. FeIII-based MOFs are one of many with high biocompatibility and good drug loading capacity, as well as unique Fenton reactivity and superparamagnetism, making them highly promising in chemodynamic and photothermal therapy, and magnetic resonance imaging. Given this, this article summarizes the applications of FeIII-based MOFs in three significant fields: chemodynamic therapy, photothermal therapy and MRI, suggesting a logical route to new strategies. This article concludes by summarising the primary challenges and development prospects in these promising research areas.

Immunogenic antitumor potential of Prakasine nanoparticles in zebrafish by gene expression stimulation

In this study, non-toxic mercury nanoparticle was synthesized as per "Prakash theory of metal drugs" and nanoparticle's characters has been demonstrated by employing several nanotechnological tools including XPS, XRD, EDAX. The size of the Prakasine nanoparticles (PRK-NP) ranged from 90-100 nm, confirmed using TEM, SEM, DLS and along with zeta potential of -29.5 mV before storage and -8.5 mV after storage. The FTIR provided information regarding the nanoparticle capping and functional groups. The study was further elaborated for determining PRK-NPs toxicity, genotoxicity, in-vivo toxicity, immunological anti-tumour activity, immunogenicity potential, gene expression profiling and confirmed by MTT and apoptosis assays, cancer zebrafish model studies and WBC proliferation assay. PRK-NPs revealed no cytotoxicity where cell viability was observed 99% in L6 mouse fibroblasts and 99% in MCF-7 cell lines. Also, the cell viability was to be 89.47% at a very high concentration of 320 µg/ml in HEK 293 cells. The PRK-NPs significantly reduced the tumour in zebrafish at dose of 90 μg/g by up regulating IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-2-ITK, IL-6, IL-8, IL-12, TNF-α and IFN-γ, and down regulating IL-4, IL-5, IL-10 and TGF-β compared to untreated controls without any adverse effects and toxicity. Thus, the current study beholds anticipation PRK-NPs may play a vital role in therapeutic.