Increased expression of CB2 receptor in the intestinal biopsies of children with inflammatory bowel disease

Cannabinoid receptor type 2 agonist GP1a attenuates macrophage activation induced by M. bovis-BCG by inhibiting NF-κB signaling

Tuberculosis (TB) is one of the leading causes of death worldwide and a major public health problem. Immune evasion mechanisms and antibiotic resistance highlight the need to better understand this disease and explore alternative treatment approaches. Mycobacterial infection modulates the macrophage response and metabolism to persist and proliferate inside the cell. Cannabinoid receptor type 2 (CB2) is expressed mainly in leukocytes and modulates the course of inflammatory diseases. Therefore, our study aimed to evaluate the effects of the CB2-selective agonist GP1a on irradiated Mycobacterium bovis-BCG (iBCG)-induced J774A.1 macrophage activation. We observed increased expression of CB2 in macrophages after iBCG stimulation. The pretreatment with CB2-agonists, GP1a, JWH-133, and GW-833972A (10 µM), reduced iBCG-induced TNF-α and IL-6 release by these cells. Moreover, the CB2-antagonist AM630 (200 nM) treatment confirmed the activity of GP1a on CB2 by scale down its effect on cytokine production. GP1a pretreatment (10 µM) also inhibited the iBCG-induced production of inflammatory mediators as prostaglandin (PG)E2 and nitric oxide by macrophages. Additionally, GP1a pretreatment also reduced the transcription of proinflammatory genes (inos, il1b, and cox2) and genes related to lipid metabolism (dgat1, acat1, plin2, atgl, and cd36). Indeed, lipid droplet accumulation was reduced by GP1a treatment, which was partially blockade by AM630 pretreatment. Finally, GP1a pretreatment reduced the activation of the NF-κB signaling pathway. In conclusion, the activation of CB2 by GP1a modulated the macrophage response to iBCG by reducing inflammatory mediator levels and metabolic reprogramming.

Comprehensive Assessment of Cannabidiol and HU308 in Acute and Chronic Colitis Models: Efficacy, Safety, and Mechanistic Innovations

Cannabinoids are emerging as promising treatments for inflammatory diseases such as ulcerative colitis. Specifically, cannabinoid 2 (CB2) receptors, which are upregulated during inflammation, have been distinctively linked to anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects. HU308, a synthetic cannabinoid developed to activate CB2 receptors selectively, aims to minimize unwanted off-target side effects. This study evaluated the effectiveness of both cannabidiol (CBD) and HU308 in mouse models of dextran sodium sulphate (DSS)-induced colitis, which mimic the acute and chronic phases of ulcerative colitis. Mice were treated with DSS in drinking water (four percent for the acute model and one to two percent for the chronic model) to induce colitis, as indicated by increased disease activity index (DAI) scores and inflammatory markers. Treatment with 60 mg/kg of CBD, but not lower doses, significantly reduced colitis symptoms, such as inflammation, cytokine levels, and MPO activity, while also normalizing glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) levels. HU308 showed comparable efficacy to high-dose CBD (60 mg/kg) but at a much lower dose (2.5 mg/kg), without observable toxicity. HU308 effectively normalized DAI scores, colon inflammation, ammonia levels, and GLP-1 expression in both colitis models. These results suggest that both CBD and HU308 are promising treatments for ulcerative colitis. However, HU308 demonstrates enhanced therapeutic potential by achieving similar outcomes at a fraction of the dose required for CBD, reducing the risk of off-target side effects. The ability of HU308 to modulate GLP-1, a biomarker of gut endocrine function, further underscores its promise as a novel treatment option.

Therapeutic potential of agents targeting cannabinoid type 2 receptors in organ fibrosis

The endocannabinoid system has garnered attention as a potential therapeutic target in a range of pathological disorders. Cannabinoid receptors type 2 (CB2) are a class of G protein-coupled receptors responsible for transmitting intracellular signals triggered by both endogenous and exogenous cannabinoids, including those derived from plants (phytocannabinoids) or manufactured synthetically (synthetic cannabinoids). Recent recognition of the role of CB2 receptors in fibrosis has fueled interest in therapeutic targeting of CB2 receptors in fibrosis. Fibrosis is characterized by the alteration of the typical cellular composition within the tissue parenchyma, resulting from exposure to diverse etiological factors. The pivotal function of CB2 agonists has been widely recognized in the regulation of inflammation, fibrogenesis, and various other biological pathologies. The modulation of CB2 receptors, whether by enhancing their expression or activating their function, has the potential to provide benefits in numerous conditions, particularly by avoiding any associated adverse effects on the central nervous system. The sufficient activation of CB2 receptors resulted in the complete suppression of gene expression related to transforming growth factor β1 and its subsequent fibrogenic response. Multiple reports have also indicated the diverse functions that CB2 agonists possess in mitigating chronic inflammation and subsequent fibrosis development in various types of tissues. While currently in the preclinical stage, the advancement of CB2 compounds has garnered significant attention within the realm of drug discovery. This review presents a comprehensive synthesis of various independent experimental studies elucidating the pivotal role of identified natural and synthetic CB2 agonists in the pathophysiology of organ fibrosis, specifically in the cardiac, hepatic, and renal systems.

Cannabidiol - Help and hype in targeting mucosal diseases

Cannabidiol (CBD) is one of the most commonly utilised phytocannabinoids due to its non-psychoactive and multiple potential therapeutic properties and its non-selective pharmacology. Recent studies have demonstrated efficacy of CBD in some types of drug resistant epilepsies in combination with other therapies; comparative efficacy to other agents or placebo has been hoped for anxiety, chronic pain, and inflammatory disorders based on animal data. Although CBD products are generally treated as a restricted substance, these are being eased, partially in response to significant growth in CBD product usage and increased production but more due to emerging evidence about its safety and pharmacological properties. Currently, only one CBD product (Epidiolex®) has been approved by the Australian Therapeutic Goods Administration and US Food and Drug Administration. CBD has demonstrated promise in alleviating gut and lung diseases in vitro; however, its physicochemical properties pose a significant barrier to achieving pharmacological effects in in vivo and clinical trials. Improving CBD formulations and delivery methods using technologies including self-emulsifying emulsion, nano and micro particles could overcome these shortfalls and improve its efficacy. This review focuses on the therapeutic potential of CBD in gastrointestinal and lung diseases from the available in vitro, in vivo, and clinical research. We report on identified research gaps and obstacles in the development of CBD-based therapeutics, including novel delivery methods.

Cannabis and Endometriosis: The Roles of the Gut Microbiota and the Endocannabinoid System

Endometriosis, a chronic condition affecting around 10-14% of women, is challenging to manage, due to its complex pathogenesis and limited treatment options. Research has suggested a potential role of the gut microbiota and the endocannabinoid system in the development and progression of endometriosis. This narrative review aims to explore the role of, and any potential interactions between, the endocannabinoid system (ECS) and the gut microbiota in endometriosis. This review found that both the ECS and microbiota influence endometriosis, with the former regulating inflammation and pain perception and the latter influencing immune responses and hormonal balance. There is evidence that a dysregulation of the endocannabinoid system and the gut microbiota influence endometriosis symptoms and progression via changes in CB1 receptor expression and increased circulating levels of endocannabinoids. Microbial imbalances in the gut, such as increases in Prevotella, have been directly correlated to increased bloating, a common endometriosis symptom, while increases in E. coli have supported the bacterial contamination hypothesis as a potential pathway for endometriosis pathogenesis. These microbial imbalances have been correlated with increases in inflammatory markers such as TNF-α and IL-6, both often raised in those with endometriosis. Protective effects of the ECS on the gut were observed by increases in endocannabinoids, including 2-AG, resulting in decreased inflammation and improved gut permeability. Given these findings, both the ECS and the gut microbiota may be targets for therapeutic interventions for endometriosis; however, clinical studies are required to determine effectiveness.

Molecular Insights into Epigenetics and Cannabinoid Receptors

The actions of cannabis are mediated by G protein-coupled receptors that are part of an endogenous cannabinoid system (ECS). ECS consists of the naturally occurring ligands N-arachidonylethanolamine (anandamide) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), their biosynthetic and degradative enzymes, and the CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors. Epigenetics are heritable changes that affect gene expression without changing the DNA sequence, transducing external stimuli in stable alterations of the DNA or chromatin structure. Cannabinoid receptors are crucial candidates for exploring their functions through epigenetic approaches due to their significant roles in health and diseases. Epigenetic changes usually promote alterations in the expression of genes and proteins that can be evaluated by various transcriptomic and proteomic analyses. Despite the exponential growth of new evidence on the critical functions of cannabinoid receptors, much is still unknown regarding the contribution of various genetic and epigenetic factors that regulate cannabinoid receptor gene expression. Recent studies have identified several immediate and long-lasting epigenetic changes, such as DNA methylation, DNA-associated histone proteins, and RNA regulatory networks, in cannabinoid receptor function. Thus, they can offer solutions to many cellular, molecular, and behavioral impairments found after modulation of cannabinoid receptor activities. In this review, we discuss the significant research advances in different epigenetic factors contributing to the regulation of cannabinoid receptors and their functions under both physiological and pathological conditions. Increasing our understanding of the epigenetics of cannabinoid receptors will significantly advance our knowledge and could lead to the identification of novel therapeutic targets and innovative treatment strategies for diseases associated with altered cannabinoid receptor functions.