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Gendosz de Carrillo D, Kocikowska O, Rak M, Krzan A, Student S, Jędrzejowska-Szypułka H, Pawletko K, Lasek-Bal A. The Relevance of Reperfusion Stroke Therapy for miR-9-3p and miR-9-5p Expression in Acute Stroke-A Preliminary Study. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:2766. [PMID: 38474013 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25052766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Revised: 02/21/2024] [Accepted: 02/22/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Reperfusion stroke therapy is a modern treatment that involves thrombolysis and the mechanical removal of thrombus from the extracranial and/or cerebral arteries, thereby increasing penumbra reperfusion. After reperfusion therapy, 46% of patients are able to live independently 3 months after stroke onset. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are essential regulators in the development of cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury and the efficacy of the applied treatment. The first aim of this study was to examine the change in serum miRNA levels via next-generation sequencing (NGS) 10 days after the onset of acute stroke and reperfusion treatment. Next, the predictive values of the bioinformatics analysis of miRNA gene targets for the assessment of brain ischemic response to reperfusion treatment were explored. Human serum samples were collected from patients on days 1 and 10 after stroke onset and reperfusion treatment. The samples were subjected to NGS and then validated using qRT-PCR. Differentially expressed miRNAs (DEmiRNAs) were used for enrichment analysis. Hsa-miR-9-3p and hsa-miR-9-5p expression were downregulated on day 10 compared to reperfusion treatment on day 1 after stroke. The functional analysis of miRNA target genes revealed a strong association between the identified miRNA and stroke-related biological processes related to neuroregeneration signaling pathways. Hsa-miR-9-3p and hsa-miR-9-5p are potential candidates for the further exploration of reperfusion treatment efficacy in stroke patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daria Gendosz de Carrillo
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, 40-752 Katowice, Poland
- Department of Histology and Cell Pathology, Faculty of Medical Sciences in Zabrze, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, 40-752 Katowice, Poland
| | - Olga Kocikowska
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, 40-752 Katowice, Poland
- Department of Engineering and Systems Biology, Faculty of Automatic Control, Electronics and Computer Science, Silesian University of Technology, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
| | - Małgorzata Rak
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, 40-752 Katowice, Poland
| | - Aleksandra Krzan
- Department of Neurology, School of Health Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, 40-752 Katowice, Poland
- Department of Neurology, Upper-Silesian Medical Center of the Silesian Medical University, 40-752 Katowice, Poland
| | - Sebastian Student
- Department of Engineering and Systems Biology, Faculty of Automatic Control, Electronics and Computer Science, Silesian University of Technology, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
- Biotechnology Centre, Silesian University of Technology, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
| | - Halina Jędrzejowska-Szypułka
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, 40-752 Katowice, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Pawletko
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, 40-752 Katowice, Poland
- Department for Experimental Medicine, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, 40-752 Katowice, Poland
| | - Anetta Lasek-Bal
- Department of Neurology, School of Health Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, 40-752 Katowice, Poland
- Department of Neurology, Upper-Silesian Medical Center of the Silesian Medical University, 40-752 Katowice, Poland
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Silonov SA, Mokin YI, Nedelyaev EM, Smirnov EY, Kuznetsova IM, Turoverov KK, Uversky VN, Fonin AV. On the Prevalence and Roles of Proteins Undergoing Liquid-Liquid Phase Separation in the Biogenesis of PML-Bodies. Biomolecules 2023; 13:1805. [PMID: 38136675 PMCID: PMC10741438 DOI: 10.3390/biom13121805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Revised: 12/08/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
The formation and function of membrane-less organelles (MLOs) is one of the main driving forces in the molecular life of the cell. These processes are based on the separation of biopolymers into phases regulated by multiple specific and nonspecific inter- and intramolecular interactions. Among the realm of MLOs, a special place is taken by the promyelocytic leukemia nuclear bodies (PML-NBs or PML bodies), which are the intranuclear compartments involved in the regulation of cellular metabolism, transcription, the maintenance of genome stability, responses to viral infection, apoptosis, and tumor suppression. According to the accepted models, specific interactions, such as SUMO/SIM, the formation of disulfide bonds, etc., play a decisive role in the biogenesis of PML bodies. In this work, a number of bioinformatics approaches were used to study proteins found in the proteome of PML bodies for their tendency for spontaneous liquid-liquid phase separation (LLPS), which is usually caused by weak nonspecific interactions. A total of 205 proteins found in PML bodies have been identified. It has been suggested that UBC9, P53, HIPK2, and SUMO1 can be considered as the scaffold proteins of PML bodies. It was shown that more than half of the proteins in the analyzed proteome are capable of spontaneous LLPS, with 85% of the analyzed proteins being intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) and the remaining 15% being proteins with intrinsically disordered protein regions (IDPRs). About 44% of all proteins analyzed in this study contain SUMO binding sites and can potentially be SUMOylated. These data suggest that weak nonspecific interactions play a significantly larger role in the formation and biogenesis of PML bodies than previously expected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergey A. Silonov
- Laboratory of Structural Dynamics, Stability and Folding of Proteins, Institute of Cytology, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg 194064, Russia; (S.A.S.); (Y.I.M.); (E.M.N.); (E.Y.S.); (I.M.K.); (K.K.T.)
| | - Yakov I. Mokin
- Laboratory of Structural Dynamics, Stability and Folding of Proteins, Institute of Cytology, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg 194064, Russia; (S.A.S.); (Y.I.M.); (E.M.N.); (E.Y.S.); (I.M.K.); (K.K.T.)
| | - Eugene M. Nedelyaev
- Laboratory of Structural Dynamics, Stability and Folding of Proteins, Institute of Cytology, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg 194064, Russia; (S.A.S.); (Y.I.M.); (E.M.N.); (E.Y.S.); (I.M.K.); (K.K.T.)
| | - Eugene Y. Smirnov
- Laboratory of Structural Dynamics, Stability and Folding of Proteins, Institute of Cytology, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg 194064, Russia; (S.A.S.); (Y.I.M.); (E.M.N.); (E.Y.S.); (I.M.K.); (K.K.T.)
| | - Irina M. Kuznetsova
- Laboratory of Structural Dynamics, Stability and Folding of Proteins, Institute of Cytology, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg 194064, Russia; (S.A.S.); (Y.I.M.); (E.M.N.); (E.Y.S.); (I.M.K.); (K.K.T.)
| | - Konstantin K. Turoverov
- Laboratory of Structural Dynamics, Stability and Folding of Proteins, Institute of Cytology, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg 194064, Russia; (S.A.S.); (Y.I.M.); (E.M.N.); (E.Y.S.); (I.M.K.); (K.K.T.)
| | - Vladimir N. Uversky
- Department of Molecular Medicine and USF Health Byrd Alzheimer’s Research Institute, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33612, USA;
| | - Alexander V. Fonin
- Laboratory of Structural Dynamics, Stability and Folding of Proteins, Institute of Cytology, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg 194064, Russia; (S.A.S.); (Y.I.M.); (E.M.N.); (E.Y.S.); (I.M.K.); (K.K.T.)
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Miao Q, Kadam VD, Mukherjee A, Tan Z, Teng M. Unlocking DCAFs To Catalyze Degrader Development: An Arena for Innovative Approaches. J Med Chem 2023; 66:13369-13383. [PMID: 37738232 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c01209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/24/2023]
Abstract
Chemically induced proximity-based targeted protein degradation (TPD) has become a prominent paradigm in drug discovery. With the clinical benefit demonstrated by certain small-molecule protein degraders that target the cullin-RING E3 ubiquitin ligases (CRLs), the field has proactively strategized to tackle anticipated drug resistance by harnessing additional E3 ubiquitin ligases to enrich the arsenal of this therapeutic approach. Here, we endeavor to explore the collaborative efforts involved in unlocking a broad range of CRL4DCAF for degrader drug development. Throughout the discussion, we also highlight how both conventional and innovative approaches in drug discovery can be taken to realize this objective. Moving ahead, we expect a greater allocation of resources in TPD to pursue these high-hanging fruits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Miao
- Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pathology & Immunology, and Verna and Marrs McLean Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, United States
| | - Vilas D Kadam
- Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pathology & Immunology, and Verna and Marrs McLean Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, United States
| | - Ayan Mukherjee
- Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pathology & Immunology, and Verna and Marrs McLean Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, United States
| | - Zhi Tan
- Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pathology & Immunology, and Verna and Marrs McLean Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, United States
| | - Mingxing Teng
- Center for Drug Discovery, Department of Pathology & Immunology, and Verna and Marrs McLean Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, United States
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Jo JH, Park JU, Kim YM, Ok SM, Kim DK, Jung DH, Kim HJ, Seong HA, Cho HJ, Nah J, Kim S, Fu H, Redon CE, Aladjem MI, Jang SM. RepID represses megakaryocytic differentiation by recruiting CRL4A-JARID1A at DAB2 promoter. Cell Commun Signal 2023; 21:219. [PMID: 37612584 PMCID: PMC10463337 DOI: 10.1186/s12964-023-01246-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2023] [Accepted: 07/23/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Megakaryocytes (MKs) are platelet precursors, which arise from hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). While MK lineage commitment and differentiation are accompanied by changes in gene expression, many factors that modulate megakaryopoiesis remain to be uncovered. Replication initiation determinant protein (RepID) which has multiple histone-code reader including bromodomain, cryptic Tudor domain and WD40 domains and Cullin 4-RING E3 ubiquitin ligase complex (CRL4) recruited to chromatin mediated by RepID have potential roles in gene expression changes via epigenetic regulations. We aimed to investigate whether RepID-CRL4 participates in transcriptional changes required for MK differentiation. METHODS The PCR array was performed using cDNAs derived from RepID-proficient or RepID-deficient K562 erythroleukemia cell lines. Correlation between RepID and DAB2 expression was examined in the Cancer Cell Line Encyclopedia (CCLE) through the CellMinerCDB portal. The acceleration of MK differentiation in RepID-deficient K562 cells was determined by estimating cell sizes as well as counting multinucleated cells known as MK phenotypes, and by qRT-PCR analysis to validate transcripts of MK markers using phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA)-mediated MK differentiation condition. Interaction between CRL4 and histone methylation modifying enzymes were investigated using BioGRID database, immunoprecipitation and proximity ligation assay. Alterations of expression and chromatin binding affinities of RepID, CRL4 and histone methylation modifying enzymes were investigated using subcellular fractionation followed by immunoblotting. RepID-CRL4-JARID1A-based epigenetic changes on DAB2 promoter were analyzed by chromatin-immunoprecipitation and qPCR analysis. RESULTS RepID-deficient K562 cells highly expressing MK markers showed accelerated MKs differentiation exhibiting increases in cell size, lobulated nuclei together with reaching maximum levels of MK marker expression earlier than RepID-proficient K562 cells. Recovery of WD40 domain-containing RepID constructs in RepID-deficient background repressed DAB2 expression. CRL4A formed complex with histone H3K4 demethylase JARID1A in soluble nucleus and loaded to the DAB2 promoter in a RepID-dependent manner during proliferation condition. RepID, CRL4A, and JARID1A were dissociated from the chromatin during MK differentiation, leading to euchromatinization of the DAB2 promoter. CONCLUSION This study uncovered a role for the RepID-CRL4A-JARID1A pathway in the regulation of gene expression for MK differentiation, which can form the basis for the new therapeutic approaches to induce platelet production. Video Abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jae-Hyun Jo
- Department of Biochemistry, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong-Uk Park
- Department of Biochemistry, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Yeong-Mu Kim
- Department of Biochemistry, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Seon-Mi Ok
- Department of Biochemistry, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong-Kyu Kim
- Department of Biochemistry, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong-Hyun Jung
- Department of Biochemistry, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye-Ji Kim
- Department of Biochemistry, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun-A Seong
- Department of Biochemistry, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyo Je Cho
- Department of Biochemistry, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Jihoon Nah
- Department of Biochemistry, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Sangjune Kim
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Haiqing Fu
- Developmental Therapeutics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, NCI, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892-4255, USA
| | - Christophe E Redon
- Developmental Therapeutics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, NCI, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892-4255, USA
| | - Mirit I Aladjem
- Developmental Therapeutics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, NCI, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892-4255, USA
| | - Sang-Min Jang
- Department of Biochemistry, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea.
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Jo JH, Ok SM, Kim DK, Kim YM, Park JU, Jung DH, Kim HJ, Seong HA, Cho HJ, Nah J, Kim S, Fu H, Redon CE, Aladjem MI, Jang SM. RepID represses megakaryocytic differentiation by recruiting CRL4A-JARID1A at DAB2 promoter. RESEARCH SQUARE 2023:rs.3.rs-3045396. [PMID: 37461562 PMCID: PMC10350187 DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3045396/v1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/24/2023]
Abstract
Background Megakaryocytes (MKs) are platelet precursors, which arise from hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). While MK lineage commitment and differentiation are accompanied by changes in gene expression, many factors that modulate megakaryopoiesis remain to be uncovered. Replication origin binding protein (RepID) which has multiple histone-code reader including bromodomain, cryptic Tudor domain and WD40 domains and Cullin 4-RING ubiquitin ligase complex (CRL4) recruited to chromatin mediated by RepID have potential roles in gene expression changes via epigenetic regulations. We aimed to investigate whether RepID-CRL4 participates in transcriptional changes required for MK differentiation. Methods The PCR array was performed using cDNAs derived from RepID-proficient or RepID-deficient K562 erythroleukemia cell lines. Correlation between RepID and DAB2 expression was examined in the Cancer Cell Line Encyclopedia (CCLE) through the CellMinerCDB portal. The acceleration of MK differentiation in RepID-deficient K562 cells was determined by estimating cell sizes as well as counting multinucleated cells known as MK phenotypes, and by qRT-PCR analysis to validate transcripts of MK markers using phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA)-mediated MK differentiation condition. Interaction between CRL4 and histone methylation modifying enzymes were investigated using BioGRID database, immunoprecipitation and proximity ligation assay. Alterations of expression and chromatin binding affinities of RepID, CRL4 and histone methylation modifying enzymes were investigated using subcellular fractionation followed by immunoblotting. RepID-CRL4-JARID1A-based epigenetic changes on DAB2 promoter were analyzed by chromatin-immunoprecipitation and qPCR analysis. Results RepID-deficient K562 cells highly expressing MK markers showed accelerated MKs differentiation exhibiting increases in cell size, lobulated nuclei together with reaching maximum levels of MK marker expression earlier than RepID-proficient K562 cells. Recovery of WD40 domain-containing RepID constructs in RepID-deficient background repressed DAB2 expression. CRL4A formed complex with histone H3K4 demethylase JARID1A in soluble nucleus and loaded to the DAB2 promoter in a RepID-dependent manner during proliferation condition. RepID, CRL4A, and JARID1A were dissociated from the chromatin during MK differentiation, leading to euchromatinization of the DAB2 promoter. Conclusion This study uncovered a role for the RepID-CRL4A-JARID1A pathway in the regulation of gene expression for MK differentiation, which can form the basis for the new therapeutic approaches to induce platelet production.
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Differential dynamics of cullin deneddylation via COP9 signalosome subunit 5 interaction. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2022; 637:341-347. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2022.11.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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The E3 ubiquitin ligase HECTD1 contributes to cell proliferation through an effect on mitosis. Sci Rep 2022; 12:13160. [PMID: 35915203 PMCID: PMC9343455 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-16965-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The cell cycle is tightly regulated by protein phosphorylation and ubiquitylation events. During mitosis, the multi-subunit cullin-RING E3 ubiquitin ligase APC/c functions as a molecular switch which signals for one cell to divide into two daughter cells, through the ubiquitylation and proteasomal degradation of mitotic cyclins. The contributions of other E3 ligase families during cell cycle progression remain less well understood. Similarly, the roles of ubiquitin chain types beyond homotypic K48 chains in S-phase or branched K11/K48 chains during mitosis, also remain to be fully determined. Our recent findings that HECTD1 ubiquitin ligase activity assembles branched K29/K48 ubiquitin linkages prompted us to evaluate HECTD1 function during the cell cycle. We used transient knockdown and genetic knockout to show that HECTD1 depletion in HEK293T and HeLa cells decreases cell number and we established that this is mediated through loss of ubiquitin ligase activity. Interestingly, we found that HECTD1 depletion increases the proportion of cells with aligned chromosomes (Prometa/Metaphase) and we confirmed this molecularly using phospho-Histone H3 (Ser28) as a marker of mitosis. Time-lapse microscopy of NEBD to anaphase onset established that HECTD1-depleted cells take on average longer to go through mitosis. In line with this data, HECTD1 depletion reduced the activity of the Spindle Assembly Checkpoint, and BUB3, a component of the Mitosis Checkpoint Complex, was identified as novel HECTD1 interactor. BUB3, BUBR1 or MAD2 protein levels remained unchanged in HECTD1-depleted cells. Overall, this study reveals a novel putative role for HECTD1 during mitosis and warrants further work to elucidate the mechanisms involved.
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Tirado-Class N, Hathaway C, Chung WK, Dungrawala H. PHIP variants associated with Chung-Jansen syndrome disrupt replication fork stability and genome integrity. Cold Spring Harb Mol Case Stud 2022; 8:mcs.a006212. [PMID: 35863899 PMCID: PMC9528965 DOI: 10.1101/mcs.a006212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Chung-Jansen syndrome (CJS) is a rare, autosomal dominant disorder characterized by developmental delay, intellectual disability/cognitive impairment, behavioral challenges, obesity, and dysmorphic features. CJS is associated with heterozygous variants in PHIP (Pleckstrin-Homology Interacting Protein), a gene that encodes one of several substrate receptors for Cullin4-RING (CRL4) E3 ubiquitin ligase complex. Full length PHIP, also called DCAF14, was recently identified to function as a replication stress response protein. Herein, we report the identification of two PHIP missense variants identified by exome sequencing in unrelated individuals with CJS. The variants p.D488V and p.E963G occur in different functional elements of DCAF14- WD40 repeat domain and pleckstrin homology-binding region (PBR), respectively. Using DNA fiber assays, we reveal that cells expressing either variant exhibit defective replication fork progression in conditions of replication stress. Furthermore, unlike wild type DCAF14, both variants fail to accomplish DNA replication after exposure to genotoxic stress indicating a critical role of DCAF14 in protecting stalled replication forks. Thus, we have identified replication defects associated with CJS variants and predict replication-associated genome instability with CJS syndrome.
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Thakur BL, Baris AM, Fu H, Redon CE, Pongor L, Mosavarpour S, Gross J, Jang SM, Sebastian R, Utani K, Jenkins L, Indig F, Aladjem M. Convergence of SIRT1 and ATR signaling to modulate replication origin dormancy. Nucleic Acids Res 2022; 50:5111-5128. [PMID: 35524559 PMCID: PMC9122590 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkac299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2021] [Revised: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 04/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
During routine genome duplication, many potential replication origins remain inactive or 'dormant'. Such origin dormancy is achieved, in part, by an interaction with the metabolic sensor SIRT1 deacetylase. We report here that dormant origins are a group of consistent, pre-determined genomic sequences that are distinguished from baseline (i.e. ordinarily active) origins by their preferential association with two phospho-isoforms of the helicase component MCM2. During normal unperturbed cell growth, baseline origins, but not dormant origins, associate with a form of MCM2 that is phosphorylated by DBF4-dependent kinase (DDK) on serine 139 (pS139-MCM2). This association facilitates the initiation of DNA replication from baseline origins. Concomitantly, SIRT1 inhibits Ataxia Telangiectasia and Rad3-related (ATR)-kinase-mediated phosphorylation of MCM2 on serine 108 (pS108-MCM2) by deacetylating the ATR-interacting protein DNA topoisomerase II binding protein 1 (TOPBP1), thereby preventing ATR recruitment to chromatin. In cells devoid of SIRT1 activity, or challenged by replication stress, this inhibition is circumvented, enabling ATR-mediated S108-MCM2 phosphorylation. In turn, pS108-MCM2 enables DDK-mediated phosphorylation on S139-MCM2 and facilitates replication initiation at dormant origins. These observations suggest that replication origin dormancy and activation are regulated by distinct post-translational MCM modifications that reflect a balance between SIRT1 activity and ATR signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhushan L Thakur
- Developmental Therapeutics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892-4255, USA
| | - Adrian M Baris
- Developmental Therapeutics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892-4255, USA
| | - Haiqing Fu
- Developmental Therapeutics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892-4255, USA
| | - Christophe E Redon
- Developmental Therapeutics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892-4255, USA
| | - Lorinc S Pongor
- Developmental Therapeutics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892-4255, USA
| | - Sara Mosavarpour
- Developmental Therapeutics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892-4255, USA
| | - Jacob M Gross
- Developmental Therapeutics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892-4255, USA
| | - Sang-Min Jang
- Developmental Therapeutics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892-4255, USA
| | - Robin Sebastian
- Developmental Therapeutics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892-4255, USA
| | - Koichi Utani
- Developmental Therapeutics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892-4255, USA
| | - Lisa M Jenkins
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892-4255, USA
| | - Fred E Indig
- Confocal Imaging Facility, National Institute on Aging, NIH, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Mirit I Aladjem
- Developmental Therapeutics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892-4255, USA
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Meng Y, Qiu L, Zhang S, Han J. The emerging roles of E3 ubiquitin ligases in ovarian cancer chemoresistance. CANCER DRUG RESISTANCE (ALHAMBRA, CALIF.) 2022; 4:365-381. [PMID: 35582023 PMCID: PMC9019267 DOI: 10.20517/cdr.2020.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2020] [Revised: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Epithelial cancer of the ovary exhibits the highest mortality rate of all gynecological malignancies in women today, since the disease is often diagnosed in advanced stages. While the treatment of cancer with specific chemical agents or drugs is the favored treatment regimen, chemotherapy resistance greatly impedes successful ovarian cancer chemotherapy. Thus, chemoresistance becomes one of the most critical clinical issues confronted when treating patients with ovarian cancer. Convincing evidence hints that dysregulation of E3 ubiquitin ligases is a key factor in the development and maintenance of ovarian cancer chemoresistance. This review outlines recent advancement in our understanding of the emerging roles of E3 ubiquitin ligases in ovarian cancer chemoresistance. We also highlight currently available inhibitors targeting E3 ligase activities and discuss their potential for clinical applications in treating chemoresistant ovarian cancer patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Meng
- Research Laboratory of Cancer Epigenetics and Genomics, Department of General Surgery, Frontiers Science Center for Disease-related Molecular Network, Cancer Center and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China.,Yang Meng and Lei Qiu equally contributed to this manuscript
| | - Lei Qiu
- Research Laboratory of Cancer Epigenetics and Genomics, Department of General Surgery, Frontiers Science Center for Disease-related Molecular Network, Cancer Center and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China.,Yang Meng and Lei Qiu equally contributed to this manuscript
| | - Su Zhang
- Research Laboratory of Cancer Epigenetics and Genomics, Department of General Surgery, Frontiers Science Center for Disease-related Molecular Network, Cancer Center and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Junhong Han
- Research Laboratory of Cancer Epigenetics and Genomics, Department of General Surgery, Frontiers Science Center for Disease-related Molecular Network, Cancer Center and National Clinical Research Center for Geriatrics, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
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11
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Morgan MAJ, Popova IK, Vaidya A, Burg JM, Marunde MR, Rendleman EJ, Dumar ZJ, Watson R, Meiners MJ, Howard SA, Khalatyan N, Vaughan RM, Rothbart SB, Keogh MC, Shilatifard A. A trivalent nucleosome interaction by PHIP/BRWD2 is disrupted in neurodevelopmental disorders and cancer. Genes Dev 2021; 35:1642-1656. [PMID: 34819353 PMCID: PMC8653789 DOI: 10.1101/gad.348766.121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in the PHIP/BRWD2 chromatin regulator cause the human neurodevelopmental disorder Chung-Jansen syndrome, while alterations in PHIP expression are linked to cancer. Precisely how PHIP functions in these contexts is not fully understood. Here we demonstrate that PHIP is a chromatin-associated CRL4 ubiquitin ligase substrate receptor and is required for CRL4 recruitment to chromatin. PHIP binds to chromatin through a trivalent reader domain consisting of a H3K4-methyl binding Tudor domain and two bromodomains (BD1 and BD2). Using semisynthetic nucleosomes with defined histone post-translational modifications, we characterize PHIPs BD1 and BD2 as respective readers of H3K14ac and H4K12ac, and identify human disease-associated mutations in each domain and the intervening linker region that likely disrupt chromatin binding. These findings provide new insight into the biological function of this enigmatic chromatin protein and set the stage for the identification of both upstream chromatin modifiers and downstream targets of PHIP in human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc A J Morgan
- Simpson Querrey Center for Epigenetics, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | | | - Anup Vaidya
- EpiCypher, Inc., Durham, North Carolina 27709, USA
| | | | | | - Emily J Rendleman
- Simpson Querrey Center for Epigenetics, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - Zachary J Dumar
- Simpson Querrey Center for Epigenetics, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | | | | | | | - Natalia Khalatyan
- Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
| | - Robert M Vaughan
- Department of Epigenetics, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, Minnesota 49503, USA
| | - Scott B Rothbart
- Department of Epigenetics, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, Minnesota 49503, USA
| | | | - Ali Shilatifard
- Simpson Querrey Center for Epigenetics, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois 60611, USA
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12
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Kim HK, Seol JE, Ahn SW, Jeon S, Park CS, Han J. Cereblon: promise and challenges for combating human diseases. Pflugers Arch 2021; 473:1695-1711. [PMID: 34553266 DOI: 10.1007/s00424-021-02624-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Revised: 09/12/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Cereblon (CRBN) is a substrate recognition protein in the E3-ligase ubiquitin complex. The binding target of CRBN varies according to tissues and cells, and the protein regulates various biological functions by regulating tissue-specific targets. As new endogenous targets of CRBN have been identified over the past decade, the physiological and pathological functions of CRBN and its potential as a therapeutic target in various diseases have greatly expanded. For this purpose, in this review article, we introduce the basic principle of the ubiquitin-proteasome system, the regulation of physiological/pathological functions related to the endogenous substrate of CRBN, and the discovery of immunomodulatory imide drug-mediated neo-substrates of CRBN. In addition, the development of CRBN-based proteolysis-targeting chimeras, which has been actively researched recently, and strategies for developing therapeutic agents using them are introduced. These recent updates on CRBN will be useful in the establishment of strategies for disease treatment and utilization of CRBNs in biomedical engineering and clinical medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyoung Kyu Kim
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, Cardiovascular and Metabolic Disease Center, Smart Marine Therapeutic Center, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, Graduate School, Inje University, 47392, Busan, Korea
| | - Jung Eun Seol
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, Cardiovascular and Metabolic Disease Center, Smart Marine Therapeutic Center, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, Graduate School, Inje University, 47392, Busan, Korea
- Department of Dermatology, Inje University Busan Paik Hospital, Inje University, 47392, Busan, Korea
| | - Sang Woo Ahn
- Department of Dermatology, Inje University Busan Paik Hospital, Inje University, 47392, Busan, Korea
| | - Seungje Jeon
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, Cardiovascular and Metabolic Disease Center, Smart Marine Therapeutic Center, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, Graduate School, Inje University, 47392, Busan, Korea
- School of Life Sciences, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), Gwangju, Korea
| | - Chul-Seung Park
- School of Life Sciences, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), Gwangju, Korea
| | - Jin Han
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, Cardiovascular and Metabolic Disease Center, Smart Marine Therapeutic Center, Department of Health Sciences and Technology, Graduate School, Inje University, 47392, Busan, Korea.
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13
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Kim DK, Redon CE, Aladjem MI, Kim HK, Jang SM. Molecular double clips within RepID WD40 domain control chromatin binding and CRL4-substrate assembly. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2021; 567:208-214. [PMID: 34171797 PMCID: PMC9969741 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2021.06.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Revised: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The cell cycle is modulated by ubiquitin ligases, including CRL4, which facilitate degradation of the chromatin-bound substrates involved in DNA replication and chromosome segregation. One of the members of the CRL4 complex, RepID (DCAF14/PHIP), recognizes kinetochore-localizing BUB3, known as the CRL4 substrate, and recruits CRL4 to the chromatin/chromosome using the WD40 domain. Here, we show that the RepID WD40 domain provides different platforms to CRL4 and BUB3. Deletion of the H-box or exon 8 located in the RepID WD40 domain compromises the interaction between RepID and CRL4, whereas BUB3 interacts with the exon 1-2 region. Moreover, deletion mutants of other exons in the WD40 domain lost chromatin binding affinity. Structure prediction revealed that the RepID WD40 domain has two beta-propeller folds, linked by loops, which are possibly crucial for chromatin binding. These findings provide mechanistic insights into the space occupancy of the RepID WD40 domain to form a complex with CRL4, BUB3, or chromatin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Kyu Kim
- Department of Biochemistry, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Christophe E. Redon
- Developmental Therapeutics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, NCI, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892-4255, USA
| | - Mirit I. Aladjem
- Developmental Therapeutics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, NCI, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892-4255, USA
| | - Hyong Kyu Kim
- Department of Medicine and Microbiology, College of Medicine, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 361-763, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Min Jang
- Department of Biochemistry, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea; Developmental Therapeutics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, NCI, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892-4255, USA.
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14
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Chang YC, Oram MK, Bielinsky AK. SUMO-Targeted Ubiquitin Ligases and Their Functions in Maintaining Genome Stability. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22105391. [PMID: 34065507 PMCID: PMC8161396 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22105391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Revised: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 05/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO)-targeted E3 ubiquitin ligases (STUbLs) are specialized enzymes that recognize SUMOylated proteins and attach ubiquitin to them. They therefore connect the cellular SUMOylation and ubiquitination circuits. STUbLs participate in diverse molecular processes that span cell cycle regulated events, including DNA repair, replication, mitosis, and transcription. They operate during unperturbed conditions and in response to challenges, such as genotoxic stress. These E3 ubiquitin ligases modify their target substrates by catalyzing ubiquitin chains that form different linkages, resulting in proteolytic or non-proteolytic outcomes. Often, STUbLs function in compartmentalized environments, such as the nuclear envelope or kinetochore, and actively aid in nuclear relocalization of damaged DNA and stalled replication forks to promote DNA repair or fork restart. Furthermore, STUbLs reside in the same vicinity as SUMO proteases and deubiquitinases (DUBs), providing spatiotemporal control of their targets. In this review, we focus on the molecular mechanisms by which STUbLs help to maintain genome stability across different species.
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15
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Jang SM, Redon CE, Aladjem MI. Switching DCAFs: Beyond substrate receptors. Bioessays 2021; 43:e2100057. [PMID: 33857330 DOI: 10.1002/bies.202100057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Revised: 03/23/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Deciphering how DCAFs (DDB1-CUL4 Associated Factors) modulate a broad spectrum of cellular processes, including cell cycle progression and maintenance of genomic integrity is critical to better understand cellular homeostasis and diseases. Cells contain more than 100 DCAFs that associate with the Cullin-Ring Ubiquitin Ligase 4 (CRL4) complex that target specific protein substrates for degradation. DCAFs are thought to act as substrate receptors that dictate the specificity of the ubiquitination machinery ("catalytic DCAFs"). However, recent studies have suggested that some DCAFs might play a different role by targeting CRL4 complexes to distinct cellular compartments ("structural DCAFs"). Once localized to their correct cellular domains, these CRLs dissociate from the structural DCAFs prior to their association with other, substrate-specific catalytic DCAFs. Thus, we propose that DCAF switches can provide a mechanistic basis for the degradation of proteins that regulate cell growth and proliferation at precise points in space and time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang-Min Jang
- Developmental Therapeutics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, NCI, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, USA.,Department of Biochemistry, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, Republic of Korea
| | - Christophe E Redon
- Developmental Therapeutics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, NCI, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Mirit I Aladjem
- Developmental Therapeutics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, NCI, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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16
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RepID-deficient cancer cells are sensitized to a drug targeting p97/VCP segregase. Mol Cell Toxicol 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s13273-021-00121-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Background
The p97/valosin-containing protein (VCP) complex is a crucial factor for the segregation of ubiquitinated proteins in the DNA damage response and repair pathway.
Objective
We investigated whether blocking the p97/VCP function can inhibit the proliferation of RepID-deficient cancer cells using immunofluorescence, clonogenic survival assay, fluorescence-activated cell sorting, and immunoblotting.
Result
p97/VCP was recruited to chromatin and colocalized with DNA double-strand breaks in RepID-deficient cancer cells that undergo spontaneous DNA damage. Inhibition of p97/VCP induced death of RepID-depleted cancer cells. This study highlights the potential of targeting p97/VCP complex as an anticancer therapeutic approach.
Conclusion
Our results show that RepID is required to prevent excessive DNA damage at the endogenous levels. Localization of p97/VCP to DSB sites was induced based on spontaneous DNA damage in RepID-depleted cancer cells. Anticancer drugs targeting p97/VCP may be highly potent in RepID-deficient cells. Therefore, we suggest that p97/VCP inhibitors synergize with RepID depletion to kill cancer cells.
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17
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DCAF14 promotes stalled fork stability to maintain genome integrity. Cell Rep 2021; 34:108669. [PMID: 33503431 PMCID: PMC7941590 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2020.108669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Revised: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Replication stress response ensures impediments to DNA replication do not compromise replication fork stability and genome integrity. In a process termed replication fork protection, newly synthesized DNA at stalled replication forks is stabilized and protected from nuclease-mediated degradation. We report the identification of DDB1- and CUL4-associated factor 14 (DCAF14), a substrate receptor for Cullin4-RING E3 ligase (CRL4) complex, integral in stabilizing stalled replication forks. DCAF14 localizes rapidly to stalled forks and promotes genome integrity by preventing fork collapse into double-strand breaks (DSBs). Importantly, CRL4DCAF14 mediates stalled fork protection in a RAD51-dependent manner to protect nascent DNA from MRE11 and DNA2 nucleases. Thus, our study shows replication stress response functions of DCAF14 in genome maintenance. Townsend et al. find that DDB1- and CUL4-associated factor DCAF14 is recruited to stalled replication forks. DCAF14 prevents replication fork collapse in a CRL4-dependent manner to promote genome stability and cell survival. DCAF14 depletion triggers nascent strand degradation that is reversible by enhancing RAD51 levels at forks.
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18
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Reevaluating the roles of histone-modifying enzymes and their associated chromatin modifications in transcriptional regulation. Nat Genet 2020; 52:1271-1281. [PMID: 33257899 DOI: 10.1038/s41588-020-00736-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Histone-modifying enzymes are implicated in the control of diverse DNA-templated processes including gene expression. Here, we outline historical and current thinking regarding the functions of histone modifications and their associated enzymes. One current viewpoint, based largely on correlative evidence, posits that histone modifications are instructive for transcriptional regulation and represent an epigenetic 'code'. Recent studies have challenged this model and suggest that histone marks previously associated with active genes do not directly cause transcriptional activation. Additionally, many histone-modifying proteins possess non-catalytic functions that overshadow their enzymatic activities. Given that much remains unknown regarding the functions of these proteins, the field should be cautious in interpreting loss-of-function phenotypes and must consider both cellular and developmental context. In this Perspective, we focus on recent progress relating to the catalytic and non-catalytic functions of the Trithorax-COMPASS complexes, Polycomb repressive complexes and Clr4/Suv39 histone-modifying machineries.
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19
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Jang SM, Redon CE, Thakur BL, Bahta MK, Aladjem MI. Regulation of cell cycle drivers by Cullin-RING ubiquitin ligases. Exp Mol Med 2020; 52:1637-1651. [PMID: 33005013 PMCID: PMC8080560 DOI: 10.1038/s12276-020-00508-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The last decade has revealed new roles for Cullin-RING ubiquitin ligases (CRLs) in a myriad of cellular processes, including cell cycle progression. In addition to CRL1, also named SCF (SKP1-Cullin 1-F box protein), which has been known for decades as an important factor in the regulation of the cell cycle, it is now evident that all eight CRL family members are involved in the intricate cellular pathways driving cell cycle progression. In this review, we summarize the structure of CRLs and their functions in driving the cell cycle. We focus on how CRLs target key proteins for degradation or otherwise alter their functions to control the progression over the various cell cycle phases leading to cell division. We also summarize how CRLs and the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC/C) ligase complex closely cooperate to govern efficient cell cycle progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang-Min Jang
- Developmental Therapeutics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892-4255, USA.
| | - Christophe E Redon
- Developmental Therapeutics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892-4255, USA
| | - Bhushan L Thakur
- Developmental Therapeutics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892-4255, USA
| | - Meriam K Bahta
- Developmental Therapeutics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892-4255, USA
| | - Mirit I Aladjem
- Developmental Therapeutics Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, MD, 20892-4255, USA.
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